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Technical Note

Effects of the Aggregate Shape and Petrography on the Durability of Stone Mastic Asphalt

by
Alain Stony Bile Sondey
1,
Vincent Aaron Maleriado
1,
Helga Ros Fridgeirsdottir
2,
Damian Serwin
2,
Carl Christian Thodesen
1 and
Diego Maria Barbieri
1,*
1
Department of Built Environment, Oslo Metropolitan University, Pilestredet 35, 0166 Oslo, Norway
2
NCC Industry, Vebjørns vei 5, 3412 Lier, Norway
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Infrastructures 2025, 10(8), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10080198
Submission received: 2 June 2025 / Revised: 15 July 2025 / Accepted: 16 July 2025 / Published: 26 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Materials, Design, Maintenance, and Management for Transport Infrastructure)
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Abstract

Compared to traditional dense asphalt concrete mixtures, stone mastic asphalt (SMA) generally offers superior performance in terms of its mechanical resistance and extended pavement lifespan. Focusing on the Norwegian scenario, this laboratory-based study investigated the durability of SMA considering the influence of the aggregate shape and petrography. The rock aggregates were classified according to three different-shaped refinement stages involving vertical shaft impact crushing. Further, the aggregates were sourced from three distinct locations (Jelsa, Tau and Dirdal) characterized by different petrographic origins: granodiorite, quartz diorite and granite, respectively. Two mixtures with maximum aggregate sizes of 16 mm (SMA 16) and 11 mm (SMA 11) were designed according to Norwegian standards and investigated in terms of their durability performance. In this regard, two main functional tests were performed for the asphalt mixture, namely resistance against permanent deformation and abrasion by studded tyres, and one for the asphalt mortar, namely water sensitivity. Overall, the best test results were related to the aggregates sourced from Jelsa and Tau, thus highlighting that the geological origin exerts a major impact on SMA’s durability performance. On the other hand, the different aggregate shapes related to the crushing refinement treatments seem to play an effective but secondary role.

1. Introduction

1.1. Research Motivation

As a fundamental component of national and international transport networks, road pavement, which is built as a layered structure, is essential to guarantee mobility and promote economic growth [1,2]. The construction material used to pave the two surface layers of flexible pavement, namely the binder course and wearing course, is called asphalt concrete. This product comprises a binder (i.e., bitumen) and aggregates, which act as the glue and skeleton, respectively. In this regard, the following main technical terms are defined. Asphalt mastic is the combination of bitumen with very fine aggregates (i.e., filler) usually smaller than 0.063 mm. Due to its very small size, the filler can be regarded as a binder additive and can have different origins, such as limestone, cement or steel slag. Asphalt mortar is the mixture of asphalt mastic, with fine aggregates having a size generally between 0.063 mm and 2–4 mm. Eventually, all aggregate sizes (i.e., filler, fine, coarse) are blended with bitumen for asphalt concrete [3,4].
Broadly speaking, the construction and maintenance of road pavement consume a significant quantity of natural resources and extensively harness energy-intensive processes [5,6,7]. Therefore, the shift toward more sustainable transport infrastructures has emphasized the need for innovative materials and effective methodologies [8,9] to dampen the environmental burdens of anthropogenic activities [10,11]. In Norway, the Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA) is at the forefront when it comes to supporting research projects aimed at bolstering the long-term durability and resilience of the road network [12,13]. In this regard, a national consortium of public and private stakeholders has recently launched the project “Asphalt Pavement Lifespan” to deal with the best design of flexible pavement by investigating the nexus between durability performance and industrial production [14].
The focus of this project is stone mastic asphalt (SMA) (“skjelettasfalt, Ska” in Norwegian) [15,16]. This kind of asphalt mixture, also known as stone matrix asphalt, is composed of a gap-graded aggregate skeleton (approximately 70–80% coarse and 8–12% filler), where the voids are occupied by a considerable amount of traditional or polymer-modified bitumen (6–8%) and mineral fibres (0.3–1.0%) to avoid bitumen drain-down during transport and compaction [17,18]. Compared to traditional dense asphalt concrete (AC) (Figure 1), SMA mixtures are typically used in heavily trafficked roads thanks to their superior performance when it comes to rutting, skid resistance as well as noise-reducing properties thanks to the gap-graded structure [19,20]. Even if the operations related to SMA production and laying are typically more expensive than traditional AC mixtures, mainly due to the higher bitumen content and addition of fibres, the extended pavement lifespan and lower maintenance costs often outweigh the upfront investment [21,22].
As depicted in Figure 2, this research deals with evaluating the durability performance of SMA mixtures for road-wearing layers considering the influence exerted by different shapes and petrography of rock materials. The investigated aggregates are classified according to three comminution stages of vertical shaft impact (VSI) crushing, entailing particle shape refinement. Further, aggregates are collected from three distinct Norwegian locations (Jelsa, Tau and Dirdal) characterized by different geological origins. Two main functional tests are performed for the asphalt mixture, namely resistance against permanent deformation and abrasion by studded tyres, and one for the asphalt mortar, namely water sensitivity.

1.2. Literature Review and Novelty

Using digital image processing techniques, Arasan et al. assessed the influence of the shape characteristics (e.g., elongation, flatness, sphericity) of coarse aggregates on the Marshall stability and flow of asphalt mixtures. They found that there was a good correlation between the mechanical properties of asphalt concrete and shape indexes of aggregates [23]. Bessa et al. considered the effect of three different mineralogical sources and the shape of rock materials used in hot mix asphalt. They leveraged aggregate image measurement systems and performed mechanical tests to appraise the resilient modulus, indirect tensile strength and fatigue life. In the results of their study, petrography played a secondary role compared to aggregate morphology [24]. Aragão et al. investigated the stiffness, permanent deformation and cracking of asphalt mixtures by means of uniaxial test, flow number test and indirect tensile test, respectively. Two types of aggregates, namely cubic crushed gneiss and rounded gravel, were used. Strong correlations were identified between the aggregate surface texture and the mechanical response of asphalt concrete [25]. Anastasio et al. assessed the influence of four geologically different aggregates on the mechanical performance of asphalt mixtures by means of indirect tensile strength test, Cantabro test and Prall test. Differently from Bessa et al. and Aragão et al., Anastasio et al. found that the influence exerted by the geological parameters on the mechanical properties of the asphalt mixtures was fundamental [26,27]. Liu et al. investigated the effect of the morphological characteristics of coarse aggregates on the mechanical performance of SMA in terms of rutting performance and fatigue life, which were ascertained by means of a modal mobile load simulator and portable seismic pavement analyser, respectively. They documented that equidimensional angular aggregates with rougher texture could reduce rutting, while spherical aggregates could improve fatigue performance [28]. Cui et al. considered the Marshall stability and flexural strength performance of asphalt mixtures containing three types of aggregates subdivided into five different angularity groups. The results showed that there was “optimal angularity and sphericity” for the mechanical response of asphalt concrete [29]. Aboutalebi Esfahani and Kalani performed petrographic analyses on four types of rock aggregates and correlated the results with Marshall stability, indirect tensile strength and resilient modulus of the asphalt mixtures. In line with Anastasio et al., they also highlighted that geology was of primary importance to describe and possibly predict the behaviour of the materials [30]. Hassan et al. investigated the influence of three different types of aggregates on the performance of asphalt mixtures using the Marshall test, wheel track test and three-point bending beam test. The results indicated that the influence of the shape effect was much more relevant than petrography [31].
Consequently, the findings of previous research are not aligned as some studies indicated that the effect played by aggregate shape is more relevant than the influence of aggregate petrography [24,25,29,31], whereas other works documented the opposite trend [26,27,30]. Therefore, taking the research project “Asphalt Pavement Lifespan” as a point of departure [14], this study continues shedding light on the topic by assessing the possible relationships between the petrological characteristics, shape parameters of rock aggregates and mechanical response of asphalt mixtures. Furthermore, none of the previous studies dealt with the effect of the multi-stage aggregate crushing as a method to achieve particle shape refinement. In addition, the focus of this work is related to SMA, whereas the majority of previous research referred to traditional dense asphalt concrete. Eventually, only one study performed the Prall test [26], and another one carried out the wheel track test [31]; the shaking abrasion test was not considered in previous research.

2. Materials

2.1. Rock Aggregate

This research sheds light on the durability of SMA mixtures for pavement-wearing layers produced with three different aggregate types sourced from quarries located in Jelsa, Tau and Dirdal. These places are situated close to the municipality of Stavanger located in southwest Norway (Figure 3). These quarries usually supply Norway and continental Europe with an annual production output equal to 17 million tonnes [32].
Previous research focused on characterizing the mechanical behaviour of the aggregates treated by means of one or two cycles of VSI crusher to enhance the shape and texture [33,34]. Broadly speaking, a VSI machine reduces the size of larger rocks into smaller ones (i.e., particle comminution) and improves the shape (i.e., particle refinement). As depicted in Figure 4, the process takes place thanks to the kinetic energy introduced by the rotor shaft assembly along a series of rotor vanes, which shatter the materials with an ejection speed of 30–70 m/s against the breaker plates (i.e., anvils) inside the casing. Such a comminution process causes the aggregate material to fracture along its natural cleavage planes, thus leading to a product with cubical shape, low flakiness and generally enhanced commercial value, albeit with a considerable quantity of fines generated [35,36]. As the feed size is usually smaller than 6 cm, VSI machines are commonly employed for tertiary and quaternary crushing [34,37].
In a previous study, thin-section microscopy was performed on polished rock slices with thickness 25 µm to examine the mineralogy and grain sizes [33]. Jelsa (J) aggregates are granodiorite as they contain amphibole and plagioclase; moreover, quartz particles are visible. The material quarried in Tau (T) is quartz diorite, displaying a high content of quartz and feldspar accounting for 80–90% of the minerals. Both the rock types quarried in Jelsa and Tau contain fine-grained crystals with dimensions smaller than 1 mm; furthermore, they do not display foliation. Rocks deriving from Dirdal (D) are classified as coarse-grained granite as they mainly contain quartz, plagioclase and feldspar. Dirdal aggregates, which also exhibit some chemical and metasomatic alteration, are characterized by a higher degree of variation between large and small mineral grains compared to Jelsa and Tau. Table 1 reports the main information regarding the three aggregate types investigated in this study for all sizes (i.e., coarse, fine, filler) [39,40]. Further, Figure 5 displays the appearance for fractions between 11 mm and 16 mm for each VSI treatment.
The construction materials that are used in road pavement engineering need to satisfy strict criteria (e.g., geometrical, mechanical, physical) to guarantee a good-performing structure [41,42]. In Norway, such requirements are defined by the NPRA design code “N200”, which implements a mechanistic–empirical approach [13]. Previous research documented a beneficial effect of VSI crushing when it comes to resistance to wear by abrasion from studded tyres AN and flakiness index FI [33]. The former test (also known as “Nordic test”) is performed on a given quantity of aggregates with a size between 11.2 mm and 16 mm. The rock material, to which is added 2 l water and 7 kg of steel balls with diameter 15 mm, revolves in a steel drum 5400 times with a speed of 90 rotations per minute. Upon completion, the mass loss smaller than 2 mm is sieved and weighed [43]. The latter test evaluates the shape by weighing the aggregates that pass through bar sieves with parallel slots as a percentage of the total mass [44]. For each particle fraction, the slot width is defined based on the corresponding square sieve used for the sieving method [45]. FI test is performed on aggregates with a size between 4 mm and 100 mm. As illustrated in Figure 6, VSI improves AN and FI values for all the aggregate types. When it comes to road-wearing layers, AN must be smaller than 10 and 7 for Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) < 15,000 and AADT > 15,000, respectively; FI must be below 20 [13].

2.2. Bitumen and Fibre

Bitumen supplied by Nynas (Drammen, Norway) with penetration 70–100 (0.1 mm at 25 °C) and softening point 43–51 °C is selected [46,47,48], as commonly practiced in Norwegian roads. The physical values are certified by the supplier. Cellulose fibres delivered by JRS Group (Rosenberg, Germany) are chosen based on their ability to form a homogeneous asphalt mixture once blended with bitumen. The fibre content is generally between 0.3% and 1.0% of the total mixture weight [15,49]; this research considers the lower limit, 0.3%, for economic reasons.

2.3. Asphalt Concrete and Asphalt Mortar

The investigated mechanical properties are related to the durability in terms of withstanding trafficking actions as well as adverse environmental conditions. In this regard, two main functional tests are performed for the asphalt mixture (i.e., resistance against permanent deformation and abrasion by studded tyres) and one for the asphalt mortar (i.e., water sensitivity) [50,51].
When it comes to the first two tests, two types of SMA mixtures are investigated, namely SMA 16 and SMA 11, as they are the most commonly used to build road-wearing layers in Norway [13]. The grading curve of SMA 16 is illustrated in Figure 7 and Table 2, while the grading curve of SMA 11 is shown in Figure 8 and Table 3. The selected particle size distributions fulfil the upper and lower limits defined by the design code “N200” [13] and are chosen based on industrial experience [50]. The small discrepancies related to the fine fractions are related to inherent variations during the crushing process. As a general rule, the Optimum Binder Content (OBC) should be determined using the Marshall mixture design method [52,53] based on void characteristics [54], bulk density [55] and maximum density [56]. Differently, this study considers the minimum binder content (BC) based on the aggregate density defined by the design code “N200” [13] as
BC   =   B × α
α   = 2.650 ρ a
where B is 6.0% and 6.2% for SMA 16 and SMA 11, respectively, and α is a correction factor considering the apparent particle density ρa, as reported in Table 1. The values of BC are shown in Table 2 and Table 3. The corresponding bulk density and void characteristics of Marshall samples are shown in Table 4 [52,54,55]. The values of the air void content Va and Void Filled with Binder (VFB) satisfy the requirements stated by the design code “N200” [13]. For AADT < 15,000, the specifications require 2.0% < Va < 6.0% and 71.0% < VFB < 89.0%; as for AADT > 15,000, the specifications require 2.5% < Va < 6.0% and 71.0% < VFB < 86.0%.
When it comes to the water sensitivity of the asphalt mortar, the maximum aggregate size is 2 mm. Table 5 documents the grading curve selected for all the samples [57]. The binder content BC is calculated as follows
BC = 16.09 − 3.125 × ρ a
where ρa is the apparent particle density, as reported in Table 1 [58]. BC is equal to 7.44%, 7.47% and 7.42% for the aggregates sourced from Jelsa, Tau and Dirdal, respectively.

2.4. Sample Preparation

All SMA samples are prepared by initially pre-heating the aggregates for approximately 4 h at 160 °C. Afterwards, they are mixed with bitumen in a heated blender for 4 minutes at 145 °C [59]. Fibres are added approximately 5 s before the addition of bitumen. The SMA specimens that are used to evaluate permanent deformation are produced in the laboratory using a smooth steel roller compactor, which presses the asphalt mixture into a parallelepipedal shape (dimension 30 cm × 30 cm × 4 cm) according to four loading stages, exerting a maximum force of 30 kN. These operations are performed on asphalt mixture at approximately 145 °C immediately after mixing [60]. After manufacturing, the samples are stored at 20 °C for 48–52 h before testing [61]. The SMA cylindrical samples investigated to assess abrasion by studded tyres are prepared in the laboratory using a Marshall compactor with a wooden pedestal. A sliding mass of 4.5 kg falls from a height of 457 mm and exerts 50 impacts per side of the asphalt sample [52]. The mixtures are compacted at approximately 145 °C and start the conditioning operations prior to testing after 48 h [62]. All replicate samples have the same age.
The cylindrical specimens of the asphalt mortar tested to assess the water sensitivity are also produced in the laboratory. The samples are made of fine aggregates and bitumen, which are manually stirred at 150 °C and statically compacted in metal moulds using a plug advancing 20 mm/min with a maximum force of 10 kN [58]. The specimens commence conditioning operations prior to testing 48 h after fabrication. All replicate samples have the same age.

3. Experimental Methodology

3.1. Permanent Deformation

The resistance to permanent deformation is appraised by means of wheel track (WT) test [61], as depicted in Figure 9. The test reproduces the trafficking action taking place on asphalt concrete using a treadless tyre. This element is made of solid rubber with rectangular cross profile (width 5 cm) and exerts a load of about 700 N. The wheel, which is steered by a cantilever arm, is continuously moved back and forth at a speed of 26 cycles per 60 s. A load cycle is defined as two passes, namely outward and return. The tyre moves along the centre line on the SMA specimen placed in the mould used during roller compaction; meanwhile, a linear variable displacement transducer (LVDT) appraises the rut depth. Two SMA sample replicates are tested simultaneously, and average results are calculated. WT test is performed inside a thermostatic cabinet with temperature 50 °C following procedure B in air. The tracking stops after 10,000 cycles unless a rut depth of 20 mm is reached before.
During testing, the evolution of rut depth is described as a percentage of the initial specimen thickness h (i.e., 40 mm in this study), namely the proportional rut depth (PRD)
PRD   = d n − d 0 h
where dn and d0 are the vertical displacement (i.e., rut depth) after a given amount of n and 0 load cycles, respectively, expressed in mm. Another relevant measurement is wheel tracking slope (WTS), defined as
WTS   = d 10,000 − d 5000 5
where d10,000 and d5000 are the vertical displacement (i.e., rut depth) after 10,000 and 5000 load cycles, respectively, in mm. The WTS value reflects how fast rutting develops during the latter phase of the test, capturing any late-stage deformation behaviour. A lower WTS indicates that the tested asphalt concrete stabilizes better under repeated loading.

3.2. Abrasion by Studded Tyres

In cold climate regions such as Norway, studded tyres are widely used during the harsh winter conditions to improve the friction with the road pavement and, thus, enhance safety conditions [63,64]. Method A (also known as “Prall”) of the abrasion by studded tyre test evaluates how well the asphalt concrete endures the wear from the metal studs [62]. The test considers cylindrical specimens with diameter 100 mm and height 30 mm, as illustrated in Figure 10 (one Marshall sample is cut in two to create two specimens for Prall testing). For each SMA type, six replicate samples are initially saturated in a water bath at 5 °C for 12 h. Afterwards, each specimen is placed inside a steel case, which repeatedly moves upward and downward steered by a connecting rod rotating at speed of 950 revolutions per minute. The abrasive action is exerted by 40 steel balls with diameter 12 mm that continuously bounce on the sample surface. Meanwhile, the specimen is also exposed to continuous waterflow at 5 °C. The test lasts for 15 min. The loss of volume is defined as abrasion value AbrA and is measured in mL
  A b r A = M 1 − M 2 ρ b
where M1 and M2 are the mass of water-stored specimen surface dry in air before and after the test, respectively, and ρb is the bulk density.

3.3. Water Sensitivity of Asphalt Mortar

In its standardized version, the shaking abrasion test assesses the suitability of rock aggregates with size smaller than 2 mm for mixing with cationic emulsions for slurry surfacing [58]. This study performs a modified version of the test (also known as “Vändskak test” in Swedish) to determine the water sensitivity of the asphalt mortar, as previously performed in other research based in the Nordic countries [65,66,67]. The modifications are (i) the hot temperature of the materials used to create samples, (ii) the particle size distribution reported in Table 5 is slightly different from the one set by the standard [57], (iii) no other additions like cement are blended with the aggregates and bitumen. For each asphalt mortar type, four cylindrical replicate specimens (height 25 mm, diameter 30 mm) are tested, as illustrated in Figure 11. Initially, the samples are conditioned in a vacuum desiccator with pressure 3 kPa for 150 min and, afterwards, they are immersed in water at 1 °C for 30 min. Afterwards, each specimen is placed in a steel cylinder filled with 750 mL water at 25 °C, which continuously revolves end over end 3600 times at a rate of 20 rotations per minute. Eventually, the samples are rinsed and the excess water lying on the surface is removed. The abrasion AR′ is assessed as follows
A R ′ = M 1 − M 2 M 1 × 100
where M1 and M2 are the mass in g of wet test specimen before and after the test, respectively.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Wheel Track Test

The rutting development of SMA 16 and SMA 11 as a function of load cycles is illustrated in Figure 12 and Figure 13, respectively. Further, Figure 14 depicts the average final values of PRD of the asphalt mixtures after 10,000 load cycles. For each testing condition, two SMA sample replicates are investigated, and average results are calculated. In the first place, the general resistance to permanent deformation of SMA 16 is better than SMA 11. This difference can be related to the more packed aggregate structure characterizing the former mixture. This outcome agrees well with the previous findings, documenting the beneficial effect exerted by the larger maximum particle size on the permanent deformation of SMA [49,68].
As a general outcome, the performance pertaining to the SMA mixture containing the aggregates sourced from Tau (quartz diorite) is better than the behaviour related to Jelsa (granodiorite), which, in turn, is superior to the results associated with Dirdal (granite). This trend is particularly clear for SMA 11 and can be correlated with the mechanical and physical properties presented in Figure 6, where the aggregates are ranked in a similar order considering their resistance to wear by abrasion and flakiness. This finding can be explained by the fact that Dirdal aggregates, which show some chemical alteration, display a high degree of variability between large and small mineral grains compared to the homogenous fine grains present in Jelsa and Tau aggregates [33]. In this regard, previous research documented that fine-grained rock aggregates are more resistant and sounder [69,70,71].
Considering the results of SMA 16, all asphalt mixtures containing aggregates treated with VSI crusher (i.e., 1 or 2 cycles) consistently lead to the same or higher values of rut depths compared to untreated ones (i.e., before VSI crusher). On the other hand, the aggregates processed with impact comminution perform better than the untreated ones when it comes to SMA 11. In this regard, the rut depth values measured for one VSI cycle are lower than two VSI cycles for Dirdal and Jelsa, whereas the opposite trend is valid for Tau. Given such a discrepancy in the outcomes related to SMA 16 and SMA 11, more research is needed to confirm the possible beneficial effect exerted by the particle shaping [72,73].
When it comes to the application of SMA mixtures to pave road-wearing layers, the Norwegian design code “N200” defines maximum values regarding the final PRD, as illustrated by dashed lines in Figure 12 and Figure 13 [13]. For AADT < 10,000, the PRD threshold is 7%; all SMA 16 mixtures but D-1 meet this requirement, whereas only T-0, T-1, T2, J-1 fulfil the requirement for SMA 11. None of the mixtures satisfy the condition set for AADT > 10,000, where the PRD threshold is equal to 5%. Possible solutions to make SMA mixtures meet the requirements could, for instance, be the use of different types of aggregate or bitumen.
The WTS values are reported in Figure 15. Considering the asphalt mixtures containing rock materials sourced from Jelsa (granodiorite) and Tau (quartz diorite), there is a clear improvement from untreated to treated aggregates, although the results pertaining to one or two VSI cycles are similar. As for the aggregates from Dirdal (granite), WTS values of untreated aggregates and treated with two VSI cycles are the same (0.06 for SMA 16, 0.14 for SMA 11), whereas the results related to one VSI cycle are intermediate (0.09 for SMA 16, 0.11 for SMA 11).
Based on the result trends deriving from the WT test and comparing the outcomes for the aggregates treated with VSI crushing and the untreated ones, a possible improvement in the mechanical response of SMA mixtures related to particle refinement cannot be unequivocally identified in this study. Even if previous research documented an enhanced performance of the aggregate’s mechanical properties following impact crushing [33,36], further evaluation is needed on a case-by-case basis for asphalt concrete mixtures [74]. As a matter of fact, findings pointing towards opposite directions are available in the literature. On the one hand, some research documented that mineralogy covers a minor role compared to the shape; furthermore, some kinds of geology may be more prone to mechanical improvements when using particle refinement [24,25,29]. On the other hand, some works have highlighted that the effect of geology in the rock aggregate skeleton [75,76] plays a primary role in asphalt mixtures [26,30]. As a matter of fact, the WT test results derived from this study also highlight the primary role of mineralogy. However, this work has dealt with only one type of bitumen, fibre and a very limited amount of aggregate geological origin and particle size distribution; a larger variation in these parameters could possibly lead to different results. No statistical analyses are performed on the results obtained with the WT test due to the limited number of investigated samples (i.e., only two specimens tested for each combination of aggregate shape, aggregate petrography and maximum particle size).

4.2. Prall Test

The abrasion AbrA values obtained with the Prall test for SMA 16 and SMA 11 are reported in Figure 16. The performance of SMA 16 is consistently better (i.e., smaller abrasion) than SMA 11. This outcome is in line with other research studies, which conducted Prall tests to assess the mechanical response of asphalt mixtures characterized by different aggregate grading curves [77,78].
The abrasion AbrA values measured for Dirdal (granite) are higher than the ones related to Jelsa (granodiorite) and Tau (quartz diorite). As already observed in Section 4.1, this trend is ascribed to the different petrographic composition in terms of mineral grain size [69,70,71], which can also affect the adhesion durability of the aggregate–asphalt concrete system [79,80]. The importance of the petrographic composition was also underlined in another study performing the Prall test for asphalt mixtures containing different geological mineralogy [26].
Considering SMA asphalt mixtures with aggregates sourced from Jelsa and Dirdal, it is possible to observe that impact crushing exerts a beneficial, albeit often limited, effect as the abrasion decreases for each VSI cycle. Considering the values of AbrA, the improvement in the mechanical response is particularly noteworthy for Dirdal (from 53.8 cm3 to 42.2 cm3 for SMA 16 and from 55.1 cm3 to 45.0 cm3 for SMA 11) rather than for Jelsa (from 38.5 cm3 to 35.4 cm3 for SMA 16 and from 40.4 cm3 to 36.1 cm3 for SMA 11). On the other hand, the results pertaining to Tau do not indicate a clear trend as the results pertaining to one VSI cycle lie between the outcomes pertaining to untreated material and two VSI cycles. In this regard, future tests can consider a wider set of the relevant inputs (e.g., grading curve, bitumen type, geological composition) and possibly lead to a comprehensive understanding of the effect engendered by VSI crushing.
The results deriving from the Prall test are statistically analysed using an f-test to further quantify the influence of the aggregate shape and petrography. This test, which is also known as analysis of variance (ANOVA), is employed to understand whether the three independent groups of aggregate types (i.e., categorized by either shape or petrography in addition to maximum particle size) of a continuous dependent variable (i.e., abrasion value AbrA) are statistically different from one another [81,82]. Moreover, the post hoc pairwise comparison tests with the Tamhane procedure allows to highlight which groups are statistically different from each other. ANOVA is performed with the software package IBM SPSS Statistics version 28. Three alpha levels, namely significant (p < 0.05), very significant (p < 0.01) and highly significant (p < 0.001), are selected, as commonly done in statistics. Table 6 displays the significance p when it comes to the influence of different aggregate petrography. Of all the 18 relationships, 15 are statistically different. Moreover, seven relationships display a very high significance level. When it comes to the effect exerted by different aggregate shapes, as reported in Table 7, 12 relationships of all 18 are not significant, indicating that it is not possible to distinguish the Prall results obtained for different aggregate shapes. However, five relationships are significant, and one is highly significant. Therefore, the effect of different aggregate shape on Prall test results seems to play a secondary role compared to the major influence exerted by different petrographic origin [26,27,30]. Nevertheless, it is worth highlighting that the very small sample size (i.e., only six replicate specimens for a given combination of aggregate shape, aggregate petrography, maximum particle size) may have affected the robustness of the statistical analysis.

4.3. Modified Shaking Abrasion Test

The results pertaining to the modified shaking abrasion test are illustrated in Figure 17. Considering all the rock materials which do not undergo comminution, the abrasion AR′ values indicate that the asphalt mortars with the aggregates sourced from Jelsa (granodiorite) perform best. As already discussed, this outcome can be related to the different grain size of the rock minerals [69,70,71].
When it comes to the effect exerted by the impact crushing, the findings indicate that the VSI process worsens the durability of all the investigated materials, as asphalt mortars containing treated aggregates (both one and two VSI cycles) exhibit a higher mass loss. This trend is particularly noteworthy for Jelsa, where AR′ values for J-0, J-1 and J-2 are 46.2, 90.1 and 88.4, respectively. Based on the results, the comminution process does not seem to enhance the durability of the asphalt mortar for all the petrography types considered in this study [66,83]. Furthermore, the modified shaking abrasion test results do not seem to provide a reliable comparative assessment of the aggregate quality due to the extremely high mass loss values for all samples. Differently from the outcomes deriving from the WT test and Prall test, where it was possible to identify and discuss result trends, the generalized massive degradation of all the samples investigated with modified shaking abrasion tests indicates that this methodology may be unsuitable for evaluating the fine-aggregate durability. Therefore, it is suggested that future research uses alternative methods to appreciate the mechanical response of the asphalt mixture samples in the presence of moisture. For instance, suitable investigations could include the Hamburg WT test [61], ratio between the indirect tensile strength of water-conditioned and dry samples [84,85] or Cantabro test using specimens conditioned with freeze–thaw cycles [86]. Eventually, considering the generalized massive degradation of all the samples investigated in this work, no statistical analyses are performed.

5. Conclusions

Compared to the traditional dense asphalt concrete mixtures, stone mastic asphalt (SMA) is widely used to pave road surface layers thanks to the superior mechanical performance. Focusing on the Norwegian scenario, this laboratory-based research dealt with the durability of two types of mixtures for road-wearing layers, namely SMA 16 and SMA 11, considering the influence of the different shapes and petrography of rock materials. The aggregates were classified according to three different comminution stages involving a vertical shaft impact (VSI) crusher (i.e., before crushing, one cycle, two cycles). Further, aggregates were sourced from three distinct locations (Jelsa, Tau, Dirdal), characterized by different petrography: granodiorite, quartz diorite and granite, respectively. Eventually, the durability performance of the SMA mixtures was assessed in terms of resistance to permanent deformation and abrasion by studded tyres by means of a wheel track (WT) test and Prall test, respectively. The water sensitivity of the asphalt mortar was investigated performing the modified shaking abrasion test.
The result trends obtained from the performed tests can be summarized as follows:
(1)
The outcomes pertaining to the aggregates deriving from Jelsa (granodiorite) and Tau (quartz diorite) show better performance than the ones sourced from Dirdal (granite). This discrepancy can be attributed to the fact that the rock material quarried in Dirdal, which shows a degree of chemical alteration, displays a high degree of variability between large and small mineral grains compared to the homogenous fine grains for Jelsa and Tau. In this regard, fine-grained aggregates are proved to be more resistant and sounder.
(2)
When it comes to the results deriving from the WT test, the VSI comminution process led to an improved rutting performance for SMA 11. On the other hand, the permanent deformation of the treated aggregates (i.e., one or two VSI cycles) was worse than the untreated ones (i.e., before VSI crusher) for SMA 16. Such a discrepancy in the outcomes related to SMA 16 and SMA 11 suggests that more research is needed to identify the effect of VSI crushing. Further, the wheel tracking slope (WTS) results indicate that the values after one or two VSI cycles are similar.
(3)
The Prall test highlighted a slight beneficial effect apported by the impact crushing when it comes to the SMA containing aggregates sourced from Jelsa and Dirdal, but the test results did not indicate a clear trend for Tau. Further, the statistical method, ANOVA, highlighted that the aggregate petrography seems to play a much more important role than the aggregate shape for the Prall test results.
(4)
The outcomes derived from the modified shaking abrasion test show that the VSI process seems to worsen the durability of all investigated materials. However, the generalized massive degradation of all samples suggests that future research should use alternative methods to appreciate the mechanical response in the presence of moisture.
Based on the experimental results of this study, it is possible to draw the following conclusions:
(1)
The geological origin of the aggregates exerted a major impact on the durability performance of SMA. The fine-grained aggregates sourced from Jelsa and Tau provided a better mechanical response than the rock material quarried in Dirdal, which displays a high degree of variability between large and small mineral grains.
(2)
The different aggregate shapes obtained without or with VSI crushing played a secondary role, except for the rutting resistance of SMA 11 and for the abrasion by studded tyres of SMA containing aggregates quarried in Jelsa and Dirdal.
(3)
This research did not unequivocally identify a possible general improvement related to the comminution process. Therefore, material selection based on the petrography should be prioritized in asphalt mixture design, with VSI refinement serving as an effective but secondary tool for improving aggregate morphology.
Considering the results of this study, the following directions are recommended for future work:
(1)
This research focused on aggregates sourced from southwest Norway. The investigation can be expanded by comprising other rock mineralogy that is widespread in the country. Further, future studies can also ascertain the influence exerted by other factors (e.g., different types and amount of bitumen, fibre and grading curves).
(2)
In addition to the thin-section microscopy described in this work, more advanced investigations (e.g., X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, computed tomography scanning, electron microscopy, pull-off test) can be conducted to assess the mineral composition, the aggregate surface texture and the mechanism affecting the aggregate–bitumen interface.
(3)
Based on the asphalt mixtures that display the most promising laboratory results, future research can perform full-scale testing to investigate the main mechanical properties such as rutting and stiffness. Furthermore, lifecycle assessments and lifecycle cost assessments for different asphalt mixtures can also be developed.
(4)
The creation of a wide experimental database would enable the opportunity to perform thorough statistical analyses. For instance, performing the f-test on larger datasets is necessary to identify whether asphalt mixtures exhibiting different characteristics (e.g., mineral composition, particle shape) are statistically different.
(5)
As many stakeholders involved across public institutes and private industries can benefit from the research results, a central goal could be the creation of guidelines indicating how to choose and prioritize the petrography and shape refinement of the rock aggregates used in the asphalt mixtures.

Author Contributions

A.S.B.S.: data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, software, visualization, writing—original draft. V.A.M.: data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, software, visualization, writing—original draft. H.R.F.: conceptualization, methodology, project administration, resources, supervision, writing—review and editing. D.S.: conceptualization, methodology, project administration, resources, supervision, writing—review and editing. C.C.T.: conceptualization, data curation, methodology, resources, supervision, visualization, writing—review and editing. D.M.B.: conceptualization, data curation, methodology, resources, supervision, visualization, writing—original draft. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received support from the project consortium “Asphalt Pavement Lifespan” (“Asfaltdekkers levetid” in Norwegian) coordinated by the research organization SINTEF.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Representation of SMA and conventional AC mixtures [18].
Figure 1. Representation of SMA and conventional AC mixtures [18].
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Figure 2. Systematic steps of the research.
Figure 2. Systematic steps of the research.
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Figure 3. Map of southern Norway highlighting the quarries in Jelsa, Tau and Dirdal [32,33].
Figure 3. Map of southern Norway highlighting the quarries in Jelsa, Tau and Dirdal [32,33].
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Figure 4. Schematic diagram of a VSI crusher [38].
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of a VSI crusher [38].
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Figure 5. Aggregate appearance for each VSI treatment, fraction size 11/16 mm.
Figure 5. Aggregate appearance for each VSI treatment, fraction size 11/16 mm.
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Figure 6. Resistance to wear by abrasion from studded tyres AN and flakiness index FI [13,32,33].
Figure 6. Resistance to wear by abrasion from studded tyres AN and flakiness index FI [13,32,33].
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Figure 7. Grading curve SMA 16.
Figure 7. Grading curve SMA 16.
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Figure 8. Grading curve SMA 11.
Figure 8. Grading curve SMA 11.
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Figure 9. WT test.
Figure 9. WT test.
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Figure 10. Prall test.
Figure 10. Prall test.
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Figure 11. Modified shaking abrasion test.
Figure 11. Modified shaking abrasion test.
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Figure 12. PRD values for SMA 16 [13].
Figure 12. PRD values for SMA 16 [13].
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Figure 13. PRD values for SMA 11 [13].
Figure 13. PRD values for SMA 11 [13].
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Figure 14. Average values and standard deviation of PRD after 10,000 load cycles for SMA 16 and SMA 11.
Figure 14. Average values and standard deviation of PRD after 10,000 load cycles for SMA 16 and SMA 11.
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Figure 15. Average values and standard deviation of WTS for SMA 16 and SMA 11.
Figure 15. Average values and standard deviation of WTS for SMA 16 and SMA 11.
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Figure 16. Average values and standard deviation of abrasion value AbrA for SMA 16 and SMA 11.
Figure 16. Average values and standard deviation of abrasion value AbrA for SMA 16 and SMA 11.
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Figure 17. Average values and standard deviation of abrasion value AR′ for asphalt mortar.
Figure 17. Average values and standard deviation of abrasion value AR′ for asphalt mortar.
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Table 1. Quarry name, geological origin, density and code abbreviation of the aggregates tested in this study [32,33].
Table 1. Quarry name, geological origin, density and code abbreviation of the aggregates tested in this study [32,33].
QuarryGeologyDensity
(Mg/m3)		Code Abbreviation
Before
VSI		After
1 Cycle VSI		After
2 Cycles VSI
Jelsagranodiorite2.766J-0J-1J-2
Tauquartz diorite2.759T-0T-1T-2
Dirdalgranite2.773D-0D-1D-2
Table 2. Grading curve SMA 16.
Table 2. Grading curve SMA 16.
Sieve Size (mm)BC (%)
1611.285.64210.50.250.1250.063
Passing (%)
Jelsa100.057.042.037.332.723.015.012.010.79.08.05.75
Tau100.060.044.740.335.326.719.714.711.79.78.05.76
Dirdal100.057.042.038.034.021.716.013.011.710.08.05.73
Table 3. Grading curve SMA 11.
Table 3. Grading curve SMA 11.
Sieve Size (mm)BC (%)
1611.285.64210.50.250.1250.063
Passing (%)
Jelsa100.0100.056.049.743.030.019.014.312.010.79.05.94
Tau100.0100.058.052.045.033.323.717.713.310.78.75.96
Dirdal100.0100.056.051.045.027.719.015.713.311.39.35.93
Table 4. Density and void characteristics of SMA mixtures.
Table 4. Density and void characteristics of SMA mixtures.
SMA 16SMA 11
Density
(Mg/m3)		Va
(%)		VFB
(%)		Density
(Mg/m3)		Va
(%)		VFB
(%)
Jelsa2.4223.3779.532.4492.6384.03
Tau2.4133.4279.302.4093.1781.70
Dirdal2.4273.7077.802.4292.5584.90
Table 5. Grading curve of aggregates used in the asphalt mortar.
Table 5. Grading curve of aggregates used in the asphalt mortar.
Sieve Size (mm)210.50.250.1250.063
Passing (%)171622181314
Table 6. Significance p of ANOVA results regarding the influence of aggregate petrography (Jelsa, Tau, Dirdal) on the performance of SMA categorized by aggregate shape and maximum particle size.
Table 6. Significance p of ANOVA results regarding the influence of aggregate petrography (Jelsa, Tau, Dirdal) on the performance of SMA categorized by aggregate shape and maximum particle size.
VSI 0VSI 1VSI 2
SMA 16SMA 11SMA 16SMA 11SMA 16SMA 11
Jelsa|Tau0.033 *0.615 ns0.010 *0.420 ns0.029 *0.403 ns
Jelsa|Dirdal<0.001 ***0.011 *0.007 **<0.001 ***<0.001 ***0.006 **
Tau|Dirdal<0.001 ***0.011 *<0.001 ***<0.001 ***<0.001 ***0.002 **
Superscripts are ns = non-significant, * = p < 0.05, ** = p < 0.01, *** = p < 0.001.
Table 7. Significance p of ANOVA results regarding the influence of aggregate shape (VSI 0, VSI 1, VSI 2) on the performance of SMA categorized by aggregate petrography and maximum particle size.
Table 7. Significance p of ANOVA results regarding the influence of aggregate shape (VSI 0, VSI 1, VSI 2) on the performance of SMA categorized by aggregate petrography and maximum particle size.
JelsaTauDirdal
SMA 16SMA 11SMA 16SMA 11SMA 16SMA 11
VSI 0|VSI 10.998 ns0.268 ns0.891 ns0.920 ns0.016 *0.172 ns
VSI 0|VSI 20.010 *0.014 *0.894 ns0.996 ns<0.001 ***0.054 ns
VSI 1|VSI 20.010 *0.089 ns0.276 ns0.012 *0.140 ns0.385 ns
Superscripts are ns = non-significant, * = p < 0.05, *** = p < 0.001.
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Sondey, A.S.B.; Maleriado, V.A.; Fridgeirsdottir, H.R.; Serwin, D.; Thodesen, C.C.; Barbieri, D.M. Effects of the Aggregate Shape and Petrography on the Durability of Stone Mastic Asphalt. Infrastructures 2025, 10, 198. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10080198

AMA Style

Sondey ASB, Maleriado VA, Fridgeirsdottir HR, Serwin D, Thodesen CC, Barbieri DM. Effects of the Aggregate Shape and Petrography on the Durability of Stone Mastic Asphalt. Infrastructures. 2025; 10(8):198. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10080198

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sondey, Alain Stony Bile, Vincent Aaron Maleriado, Helga Ros Fridgeirsdottir, Damian Serwin, Carl Christian Thodesen, and Diego Maria Barbieri. 2025. "Effects of the Aggregate Shape and Petrography on the Durability of Stone Mastic Asphalt" Infrastructures 10, no. 8: 198. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10080198

APA Style

Sondey, A. S. B., Maleriado, V. A., Fridgeirsdottir, H. R., Serwin, D., Thodesen, C. C., & Barbieri, D. M. (2025). Effects of the Aggregate Shape and Petrography on the Durability of Stone Mastic Asphalt. Infrastructures, 10(8), 198. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10080198

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