Cryptography

18 pages, 515 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Candidate Self-Tallying Voting Scheme Based on Smart Contracts

by Xingan Dai, Xinquan Zhou, Dehua Zhou, Jinhan Zhong and Chao Hong

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030042 - 12 Sep 2024

Viewed by 236

In this paper, we propose a smart contract-based multi-candidate self-tallying voting scheme in order to guarantee the privacy of ballots in the case of multiple candidates. This scheme uses the ElGamal cryptosystem to ensure the security of the ballots, and combines it with [...] Read more.

In this paper, we propose a smart contract-based multi-candidate self-tallying voting scheme in order to guarantee the privacy of ballots in the case of multiple candidates. This scheme uses the ElGamal cryptosystem to ensure the security of the ballots, and combines it with a Distributed Encryption algorithm to make the voting scheme have self-tallying features, and guarantees the correctness of the intermediate data through zero-knowledge proofs. The experimental results show that the scheme improves the voting efficiency without compromising the security. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Blockchain Security)

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16 pages, 7959 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cryptanalysis of Dual-Stage Permutation Encryption Using Large-Kernel Convolutional Neural Network and Known Plaintext Attack

by Ching-Chun Chang, Shuying Xu, Kai Gao and Chin-Chen Chang

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030041 - 11 Sep 2024

Viewed by 168

Abstract

Reversible data-hiding in encrypted images (RDHEI) plays a pivotal role in preserving privacy within images stored on cloud platforms. Recently, Wang et al. introduced a dual-stage permutation encryption scheme, which is highly compatible with RDHEI techniques. In this study, we undertake an exhaustive [...] Read more.

Reversible data-hiding in encrypted images (RDHEI) plays a pivotal role in preserving privacy within images stored on cloud platforms. Recently, Wang et al. introduced a dual-stage permutation encryption scheme, which is highly compatible with RDHEI techniques. In this study, we undertake an exhaustive examination of the characteristics inherent to the dual-stage permutation scheme and propose two cryptanalysis schemes leveraging a large-kernel convolutional neural network (LKCNN) and a known plaintext attack (KPA) scheme, respectively. Our experimental findings demonstrate the effectiveness of our cryptanalysis schemes in breaking the dual-stage permutation encryption scheme. Based on our investigation, we highlight significant security vulnerabilities in the dual-stage permutation encryption scheme, raising concerns about its suitability for secure image storage and privacy protection in cloud environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Authentication, Authorization and Privacy for Securing Smart Communications)

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12 pages, 579 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strict Avalanche Criterion of SHA-256 and Sub-Function-Removed Variants

by Riley Vaughn and Mike Borowczak

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030040 - 8 Sep 2024

Viewed by 324

Abstract

The measure of diffusion, the property of dissipating patterns and statistical structures in cryptographic transformations, serves as a valuable heuristic for assessing the obscurity of patterns that could lead to collisions. As with many cryptographic hash functions, SHA-256 is thought to exhibit the [...] Read more.

The measure of diffusion, the property of dissipating patterns and statistical structures in cryptographic transformations, serves as a valuable heuristic for assessing the obscurity of patterns that could lead to collisions. As with many cryptographic hash functions, SHA-256 is thought to exhibit the property of diffusion. While SHA-256’s diffuse output is loosely documented, even less is known about how the diffusion rate changes across the 64 rounds in its compression function and how the algorithm’s individual sub-functions contribute to the overall diffusion. The diffusion of the unmodified compression function is initially measured using the Strict Avalanche Criterion (SAC), with the aim of understanding the alteration in diffusion across the 64 rounds of compression. The level to which sub-functions affect diffusion is subsequently measured, enabling potential prioritization of these sub-functions in future collision attacks. To accomplish this, the compression function is modified by removing sub-functions, and the diffusion of these new variants is measured. While the SAC measurements of each function eventually plateau close to the 50% target, no function, including the unmodified compression function, strictly meets the SAC, and multiple variant functions diffuse at comparatively slower rates. Full article

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17 pages, 996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Method of Secured Data Distribution Using Sharding Zkp and Zero Trust Architecture in Blockchain Multi Cloud Environment

by Komala Rangappa, Arun Kumar Banavara Ramaswamy, Mahadeshwara Prasad and Shreyas Arun Kumar

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030039 - 2 Sep 2024

Viewed by 553

Abstract

In the era of cloud computing, guaranteeing the safety and effectiveness of data management is of utmost importance. This investigation presents a novel approach that amalgamates the sharding concept, encryption, zero-knowledge proofs (zkp), and blockchain technology for secure data retrieval and data access [...] Read more.

In the era of cloud computing, guaranteeing the safety and effectiveness of data management is of utmost importance. This investigation presents a novel approach that amalgamates the sharding concept, encryption, zero-knowledge proofs (zkp), and blockchain technology for secure data retrieval and data access control to improve data security, efficiency in cloud storage and migration. Further, we utilize user-specific digital wallets for secure encryption keys in order to encrypt the file before storing into the cloud. As Large files (greater than 50 MB) or Big data files (greater than 1 TB) require greater computational complexity, we leverage the sharding concept to enhance both space and time complexity in cloud storage. Hence, the large files are divided into shards and stored in different database servers. We also employ a blockchain smart contract to enhance secure retrieval of the file and also a secure access method, which ensures the privacy of the user. The zk-snark protocol is utilized to ensure the safe transfer of data between different cloud services. By utilizing this approach, data privacy is preserved, as only the proof of the data’s authenticity is shared with the verifier at the destination cloud, rather than the actual data themselves. The suggested method tackles important concerns related to data protection, privacy, and efficient resource utilization in cloud computing settings by ensuring it meets all the cloud policies required to store data. Since the environment maintains the privacy of the user data and the raw data of the user is not stored anywhere, the entire environment is set up as a Zero trust model. Full article

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17 pages, 348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Commutative PQC Algorithms on Isogenies of Edwards Curves

by Anatoly Bessalov, Volodymyr Sokolov and Serhii Abramov

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030038 - 27 Aug 2024

Viewed by 387

Abstract

The article presents the author’s works in the field of modifications and modeling of the Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Commutative Supersingular Isogeny Diffie-Hellman (CSIDH) algorithm on non-cyclic supersingular Edwards curves and its predecessor Couveignes-Rostovtsev-Stolbunov (CRS) scheme on ordinary non-cyclic Edwards curves are reviewed. Lower [...] Read more.

The article presents the author’s works in the field of modifications and modeling of the Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Commutative Supersingular Isogeny Diffie-Hellman (CSIDH) algorithm on non-cyclic supersingular Edwards curves and its predecessor Couveignes-Rostovtsev-Stolbunov (CRS) scheme on ordinary non-cyclic Edwards curves are reviewed. Lower estimates of the computational speed gains of the modified algorithms over the original ones are obtained. The most significant results were obtained by choosing classes of non-cyclic Edwards curves connected as quadratic twist pairs instead of cyclic complete Edwards curves, as well as the method of algorithm randomization as an alternative to “constant time CSIDH”. It is shown that in the CSIDH and Commutative Supersingular Isogeny Key Encapsulation (CSIKE) algorithms, there are two independent cryptosystems with the possibility of parallel computation, eliminating the threat of side-channel attacks. There are four such cryptosystems for the CRS scheme. Integral lower bound estimates of the performance gain of the modified CSIDH algorithm are obtained at 1.5 × 2⁹, and for the CRS scheme are 3 × 2⁹. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Trends and Prospects in Security, Encryption and Encoding)

1 pages, 136 KiB

Open AccessRetraction

RETRACTED: Liu et al. A Publicly Verifiable E-Voting System Based on Biometrics. Cryptography 2023, 7, 62

by Jinhui Liu, Tianyi Han, Maolin Tan, Bo Tang, Wei Hu and Yong Yu

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030037 - 23 Aug 2024

Viewed by 250

Abstract

The journal retracts the article, “A Publicly Verifiable E-Voting System Based on Biometrics” [...] Full article

19 pages, 1303 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Natural Language Processing for Hardware Security: Case of Hardware Trojan Detection in FPGAs

by Jaya Dofe, Wafi Danesh, Vaishnavi More and Aaditya Chaudhari

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030036 - 8 Aug 2024

Viewed by 919

Abstract

Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) offer the inherent ability to reconfigure at runtime, making them ideal for applications such as data centers, cloud computing, and edge computing. This reconfiguration, often achieved through remote access, enables efficient resource utilization but also introduces critical security vulnerabilities. [...] Read more.

Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) offer the inherent ability to reconfigure at runtime, making them ideal for applications such as data centers, cloud computing, and edge computing. This reconfiguration, often achieved through remote access, enables efficient resource utilization but also introduces critical security vulnerabilities. An adversary could exploit this access to insert a dormant hardware trojan (HT) into the configuration bitstream, bypassing conventional security and verification measures. To address this security threat, we propose a supervised learning approach using deep recurrent neural networks (RNNs) for HT detection within FPGA configuration bitstreams. We explore two RNN architectures: basic RNN and long short-term memory (LSTM) networks. Our proposed method analyzes bitstream patterns, to identify anomalies indicative of malicious modifications. We evaluated the effectiveness on ISCAS 85 benchmark circuits of varying sizes and topologies, implemented on a Xilinx Artix-7 FPGA. The experimental results revealed that the basic RNN model showed lower accuracy in identifying HT-compromised bitstreams for most circuits. In contrast, the LSTM model achieved a significantly higher average accuracy of 93.5%. These results demonstrate that the LSTM model is more successful for HT detection in FPGA bitstreams. This research paves the way for using RNN architectures for HT detection in FPGAs, eliminating the need for time-consuming and resource-intensive reverse engineering or performance-degrading bitstream conversions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Topics in Hardware Security)

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21 pages, 339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Note on the Quasigroup of Lai–Massey Structures

by George Teşeleanu

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030035 - 7 Aug 2024

Viewed by 499

Abstract

In our paper, we explore the consequences of replacing the commutative group operation used in Lai–Massey structures with a quasigroup operation. We introduce four quasigroup versions of the Lai–Massey structure and prove that for quasigroups isotopic with a group

G

, the complexity [...] Read more.

In our paper, we explore the consequences of replacing the commutative group operation used in Lai–Massey structures with a quasigroup operation. We introduce four quasigroup versions of the Lai–Massey structure and prove that for quasigroups isotopic with a group

G

, the complexity of launching a differential attack against these variants of the Lai–Massey structure is equivalent to attacking an alternative structure based on

G

. Then, we provide the conditions needed for correct decryption and further refine the resulting structure. The emerging structure is both intriguing and novel, and we hope that it will form the basis for future secure block ciphers based on non-commutative groups. In the case of commutative groups, we show that the resulting structure reduces to the classic Lai–Massey structure. Full article

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18 pages, 2962 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Two-Level Protection Scheme against Hardware Trojans on a Reconfigurable CNN Accelerator

by Zichu Liu, Jia Hou, Jianfei Wang and Chen Yang

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030034 - 4 Aug 2024

Viewed by 940

Abstract

With the boom in artificial intelligence (AI), numerous reconfigurable convolution neural network (CNN) accelerators have emerged within both industry and academia, aiming to enhance AI computing capabilities. However, this rapid landscape has also witnessed a rise in hardware Trojan attacks targeted at CNN [...] Read more.

With the boom in artificial intelligence (AI), numerous reconfigurable convolution neural network (CNN) accelerators have emerged within both industry and academia, aiming to enhance AI computing capabilities. However, this rapid landscape has also witnessed a rise in hardware Trojan attacks targeted at CNN accelerators, thereby posing substantial threats to the reliability and security of these reconfigurable systems. Despite this escalating concern, there exists a scarcity of security protection schemes explicitly tailored to counteract hardware Trojans embedded in reconfigurable CNN accelerators, and those that do exist exhibit notable deficiencies. Addressing these gaps, this paper introduces a dedicated security scheme designed to mitigate the vulnerabilities associated with hardware Trojans implanted in reconfigurable CNN accelerators. The proposed security protection scheme operates at two distinct levels: the first level is geared towards preventing the triggering of the hardware Trojan, while the second level focuses on detecting the presence of a hardware Trojan post-triggering and subsequently neutralizing its potential harm. Through experimental evaluation, our results demonstrate that this two-level protection scheme is capable of mitigating at least 99.88% of the harm cause by three different types of hardware Trojan (i.e., Trojan within RI, MAC and ReLU) within reconfigurable CNN accelerators. Furthermore, this scheme can prevent hardware Trojans from triggering whose trigger signal is derived from a processing element (PE). Notably, the proposed scheme is implemented and validated on a Xilinx Zynq XC7Z100 platform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Topics in Hardware Security)

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19 pages, 1371 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Security of Merkle Trees: An Analysis of Data Falsification Probabilities

by Oleksandr Kuznetsov, Alex Rusnak, Anton Yezhov, Kateryna Kuznetsova, Dzianis Kanonik and Oleksandr Domin

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030033 - 1 Aug 2024

Viewed by 738

Abstract

Addressing the critical challenge of ensuring data integrity in decentralized systems, this paper delves into the underexplored area of data falsification probabilities within Merkle Trees, which are pivotal in blockchain and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies. Despite their widespread use, a comprehensive understanding [...] Read more.

Addressing the critical challenge of ensuring data integrity in decentralized systems, this paper delves into the underexplored area of data falsification probabilities within Merkle Trees, which are pivotal in blockchain and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies. Despite their widespread use, a comprehensive understanding of the probabilistic aspects of data security in these structures remains a gap in current research. Our study aims to bridge this gap by developing a theoretical framework to calculate the probability of data falsification, taking into account various scenarios based on the length of the Merkle path and hash length. The research progresses from the derivation of an exact formula for falsification probability to an approximation suitable for cases with significantly large hash lengths. Empirical experiments validate the theoretical models, exploring simulations with diverse hash lengths and Merkle path lengths. The findings reveal a decrease in falsification probability with increasing hash length and an inverse relationship with longer Merkle paths. A numerical analysis quantifies the discrepancy between exact and approximate probabilities, underscoring the conditions for the effective application of the approximation. This work offers crucial insights into optimizing Merkle Tree structures for bolstering security in blockchain and IoT systems, achieving a balance between computational efficiency and data integrity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Authentication, Authorization and Privacy for Securing Smart Communications)

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15 pages, 1401 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Entropy Analysis of FPGA Interconnect and Switch Matrices for Physical Unclonable Functions

by Jenilee Jao, Ian Wilcox, Jim Plusquellic, Biliana Paskaleva and Pavel Bochev

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030032 - 15 Jul 2024

Viewed by 698

Abstract

Random variations in microelectronic circuit structures represent the source of entropy for physical unclonable functions (PUFs). In this paper, we investigate delay variations that occur through the routing network and switch matrices of a field-programmable gate array (FPGA). The delay variations are isolated [...] Read more.

Random variations in microelectronic circuit structures represent the source of entropy for physical unclonable functions (PUFs). In this paper, we investigate delay variations that occur through the routing network and switch matrices of a field-programmable gate array (FPGA). The delay variations are isolated from other components of the programmable logic, e.g., look-up tables (LUTs), flip-flops (FFs), etc., using a feature of Xilinx FPGAs called dynamic partial reconfiguration (DPR). A set of partial designs is created to fix the placement of a time-to-digital converter (TDC) and supporting infrastructure to enable the path delays through the target interconnect and switch matrices to be extracted by subtracting out common-mode delay components. Delay variations are analyzed in the different levels of routing resources available within FPGAs, i.e., local routing and across-chip routing. Data are collected from a set of Xilinx Zynq 7010 devices, and a statistical analysis of within-die variations in delay through a set of the randomly-generated and hand-crafted interconnects is presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Topics in Hardware Security)

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15 pages, 647 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lattice-Based Post-Quantum Public Key Encryption Scheme Using ElGamal’s Principles

by Dana Sairangazhykyzy Amirkhanova, Maksim Iavich and Orken Mamyrbayev

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030031 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1847

Abstract

Modern technologies like quantum and cloud computing have reshaped computing, offering immense power and scalability. While beneficial, they also challenge the security of traditional cryptographic systems. Quantum computing threatens RSA and ECC with algorithms like Shor’s algorithm, which can accelerate computations exponentially. This [...] Read more.

Modern technologies like quantum and cloud computing have reshaped computing, offering immense power and scalability. While beneficial, they also challenge the security of traditional cryptographic systems. Quantum computing threatens RSA and ECC with algorithms like Shor’s algorithm, which can accelerate computations exponentially. This risks exposing these systems to attacks, necessitating quantum-resistant cryptography. Cloud computing poses data security concerns, requiring robust cryptographic mechanisms and access controls. Lattice-based cryptography, leveraging problems like the Short Integer Solution (SIS), emerges as a solution. This paper presents a novel quantum-resistant public key encryption scheme based on ElGamal and SIS, ensuring security against quantum and classical threats in modern cryptographic environments. Full article

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16 pages, 502 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improve Parallel Resistance of Hashcash Tree

by Mario Alviano and Giada Gabriele

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030030 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 596

Abstract

Denial of Service (DoS) attacks remain a persistent threat to online systems, necessitating continual innovation in defense mechanisms. In this work, we present an improved algorithm for mitigating DoS attacks through the augmentation of client puzzle protocols. Building upon the foundation of hashcash [...] Read more.

Denial of Service (DoS) attacks remain a persistent threat to online systems, necessitating continual innovation in defense mechanisms. In this work, we present an improved algorithm for mitigating DoS attacks through the augmentation of client puzzle protocols. Building upon the foundation of hashcash trees, a recently proposed data structure combining hashcash and Merkle trees, we introduce a new version of the data structure that enhances resistance against parallel computation (a common tactic employed by attackers). By incorporating the labels of children and the next node in a breadth-first traversal into the hash function, we establish a sequential processing order that inhibits parallel node evaluation. The added dependency on the next node significantly elevates the complexity of constructing hashcash trees, introducing a linear number of synchronization points and fortifying resilience against potential attacks. Empirical evaluation demonstrates the efficacy of our approach, showcasing its ability to accurately control puzzle difficulty while bolstering system security against DoS threats. Full article

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23 pages, 519 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Public Key Protocols from Twisted-Skew Group Rings

by Javier de la Cruz, Edgar Martínez-Moro, Steven Muñoz-Ruiz and Ricardo Villanueva-Polanco

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030029 - 5 Jul 2024

Viewed by 949

Abstract

This article studies some algebraic structures known as twisted-skew group rings in the context of public key cryptography. We first present some background related to these structures to then specifically introduce particular twisted-skew group rings and show how to utilize them as the [...] Read more.

This article studies some algebraic structures known as twisted-skew group rings in the context of public key cryptography. We first present some background related to these structures to then specifically introduce particular twisted-skew group rings and show how to utilize them as the underlying algebraic structure to build cryptographic protocols. We closely follow an incremental-like methodology to construct these protocols by putting parts together. As as result, we first introduce a key-agreement protocol and then generalize it to a group key-agreement protocol. We then proceed to construct a probabilistic public key encryption from our two-party key agreement and, finally, introduce a key-encapsulation mechanism from a well-known generic construction applied to probabilistic public encryption. Furthermore, we provide an in-depth security analysis for each cryptographic construction under new related algebraic assumptions and supply a proof-of-concept implementation for various candidate chosen groups. Full article

13 pages, 1408 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient and Universal Merkle Tree Inclusion Proofs via OR Aggregation

by Oleksandr Kuznetsov, Alex Rusnak, Anton Yezhov, Dzianis Kanonik, Kateryna Kuznetsova and Oleksandr Domin

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030028 - 5 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1001

Abstract

Zero-knowledge proofs have emerged as a powerful tool for enhancing privacy and security in blockchain applications. However, the efficiency and scalability of proof systems remain a significant challenge, particularly in the context of Merkle tree inclusion proofs. Traditional proof aggregation techniques based on [...] Read more.

Zero-knowledge proofs have emerged as a powerful tool for enhancing privacy and security in blockchain applications. However, the efficiency and scalability of proof systems remain a significant challenge, particularly in the context of Merkle tree inclusion proofs. Traditional proof aggregation techniques based on AND logic suffer from a high verification complexity and data communication overhead, limiting their practicality for large-scale applications. In this paper, we propose a novel proof aggregation approach based on OR logic, which enables the generation of compact and universally verifiable proofs for Merkle tree inclusion. By adapting and extending the concept of OR composition from Sigma protocols, we achieve a proof size that is independent of the number of leaves in the tree, and verification can be performed using any single valid leaf hash. This represents a significant improvement over AND aggregation, which requires the verifier to process all leaf hashes. We formally define the OR aggregation logic; describe the process of generating universal proofs; and provide a comparative analysis that demonstrates the advantages of our approach in terms of proof size, verification data, and universality. Furthermore, we discuss the potential of combining OR and AND aggregation logics to create complex acceptance functions, enabling the development of expressive and efficient proof systems for various blockchain applications. The proposed techniques have the potential to significantly enhance the scalability, efficiency, and flexibility of zero-knowledge proof systems, paving the way for more practical and adaptive solutions in large-scale blockchain ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Authentication, Authorization and Privacy for Securing Smart Communications)

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31 pages, 382 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Emerging Challenges of Wearable Biometric Cryptosystems

by Khalid Al Ajlan, Tariq Alsboui, Omar Alshaikh, Isa Inuwa-Dute, Saad Khan and Simon Parkinson

Cryptography 2024, 8(3), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography8030027 - 21 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1017

Abstract

Cryptographic key generation and data encryption and decryption using wearable biometric technologies is an emerging research area with significant potential for authentication and communication security. The research area is rapidly developing, and a comprehensive review of recently published literature is necessary to establish [...] Read more.

Cryptographic key generation and data encryption and decryption using wearable biometric technologies is an emerging research area with significant potential for authentication and communication security. The research area is rapidly developing, and a comprehensive review of recently published literature is necessary to establish emerging challenges. This research article aims to critically investigate and synthesize current research using biometric cryptosystems that use behavior or medico-chemical characteristics, ranging from gate analysis to gaze tracking. The study will summarize the state of knowledge, identify critical research gaps, and provide insight into promising future implications and applications that can enable the realization of user-specific and resilient solutions for authentication and secure communication demands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security, Privacy and Trust Aspects of Wearable and Resource Constrained Devices)

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Cryptography, Volume 8, Issue 3 (September 2024) – 16 articles

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