Next Article in Journal
Recovery of Energy and Carbon Dioxide from Craft Brewery Wastes for Onsite Use
Next Article in Special Issue
Fermentation Process Effects on Fermented McIntosh Apple Ciders
Previous Article in Journal
Enhanced DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity and Enriched γ-Aminobutyric Acid in Mulberry Juice Fermented by the Probiotic Lactobacillus brevis S3
Previous Article in Special Issue
Comparative Analysis of Microbial and Mycotoxin Contamination in Korean Traditional Soybean Paste and Soy Sauce Production with and without Starter
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Fermentation
Volume 9
Issue 9
10.3390/fermentation9090830
fermentation-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Flavour Characteristics of Fermented Meat Products in China: A Review

by
Mai Hao
,
Wei Wang
,
Jiamin Zhang
* and
Lin Chen
*
Key Laboratory for Meat Processing of Sichuan Province, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610100, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Fermentation 2023, 9(9), 830; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9090830
Submission received: 11 August 2023 / Revised: 2 September 2023 / Accepted: 8 September 2023 / Published: 12 September 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Quality and Safety of Fermented Foods 2.0)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Fermentation of meat products refers to a series of physical, biological or chemical changes in raw meat that occurs under the actions of enzymes or via microbial fermentation and results in the formation of meat products with special flavours, colours and textures that have a long history in China. These products have a unique fermented flavour, bright colour and longer shelf life than ordinary meat products, and some have proteins that are more easily absorbed by the body due to the fermentation of beneficial bacteria. Flavour development in meat products is a dynamic process. During the processing and storage of fermented meat products, the breakdown of proteins and fats is accelerated due to the addition of different fermenting agents. Moreover, the physicochemical reactions that occur within the meat products and the actions of microorganisms during the fermentation process result in the production of flavour compounds, which will determine the final flavour characteristics of the fermented meat product. This paper reviews the flavour characteristics of Chinese dry-cured hams, sausages, bacon, cured fish and sour meat and analyses the flavour substance composition of various products. Due to the differences in the raw materials, processes, auxiliary materials and fermentation processes of various types of fermented meat products in China (ham, sausage, bacon, etc.), the flavour substances contained in the various types of fermented meat products in China are different from each other. However, most fermented meat products in China are cured and fermented, and therefore, they share similarities in terms of their flavour substance composition. The flavour substances in fermented meat products mainly include alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, acids, phenols and aromatic hydrocarbons. The study of such flavour characteristics is of great significance in fermented meat product quality, and provides certain theoretical references for the study of domestic fermented meat products.

1. Introduction

Fermented meat products are meat products with a long shelf life and special flavour, texture and colour made from raw meat fermented by microorganisms or enzymes under specific temperature and humidity conditions [1]. Fermentation methods include natural fermentation and fermentation regulated by artificial additives [2]. The fermentation process requires the involvement of microorganisms, the main sources of which are the raw material itself and the natural environment. Under specific curing and fermentation process conditions, a series of specific changes occur in the raw meat through microbial action and enzyme catalysis as well as physicochemical reactions, which have a significant impact on the quality and flavour of the product [3]. Since the 1990s, the demand for meat products in China has gradually increased, and many fermented meat products with artificially added microbial fermentation agents have been increasingly introduced into the Chinese market [4]. Many traditional Chinese meat products, such as Sichuan bacon, Guizhou bacon, Chongqing bacon, Guangdong sausage, Sichuan sausage, Jinhua ham, Xuanwei ham, and Rugao ham, are fermented. In recent years, with the continuous development of food science and technology and the increasing demands of consumers, research on the flavour, organoleptic properties, nutrition and safety of fermented meat products has increased [5]. Flavour formation in fermented meat products is a complex and dynamic physicochemical process that is not fully understood. In this paper, the flavour characteristics of different types of Chinese fermented meat products are reviewed, and their flavour compounds are analysed to provide a theoretical basis for understanding the flavour characteristics of Chinese fermented meat products, and to further study these products.

2. Formation of Flavour Substances in Fermented Meat Products

Meat fermentation is an effective method of meat preservation and an economical method of food processing that also imparts a special fermented flavour to the meat product [6]. During the meat product fermentation process, due to the complex physical, chemical and biochemical changes in the fats, proteins and other substances in the raw meat, a large number of aroma and flavour substances are produced, which ultimately give the meat products a unique flavour [7]. These volatile flavour substances are mainly produced from the proteins and fats in raw meat through a series of enzymatic reactions and chemical changes, such as proteolysis, the breakdown of amino acids, the oxidation and degradation of fats, and the Maillard reaction [8]. Enzymes, such as cathepsin, lipase, and peptidase, play a crucial role in the fermentation process of meat products. These enzymes promote the decomposition of proteins, fats and polypeptides in the raw meat tissues and convert these macromolecules into small flavour substances or flavour precursors, such as flavourful amino acids, aldehydes and alcohols, during fermentation, thus promoting the formation of flavour compounds in meat products [9]. Figure 1 illustrates the process by which proteins and lipids produce flavour compounds. The first process displays the flavour substances from proteins, which are degraded to varying degrees in a wide variety of fermented meat products during their lengthy processing [10]. Raw meat proteins are hydrolysed by endogenous proteases and proteins are broken down into small molecules, such as polypeptides, small peptides, amino acids and ammonia. Amongst these substances, flavour-presenting amino acids and flavour-presenting peptides are flavouring substances, while others are flavour-enhancing agents or flavour precursor substances. Table 1 lists the flavour precursor substances in selected fermented meat products.
Amino acids are mainly used to form flavour components through Strecker degradation and the Maillard reaction [11]. Strecker degradation is a reaction in which amino acids are decarboxylated and deaminated to form the corresponding aldehydes generally through one of two main pathways. One pathway involves the participation of neighbouring dicarbonyl compounds or two carbonyls linked by a double or conjugated double bond, with CO2, amines and the corresponding aldehydes as end products, while the other involves the oxidation of amino acids by lipid peroxides and peroxynitrite, with NH3, CO2 and aldehydes as end products [12]. Branched chain aldehydes in the flavour components of fermented meat products are mainly produced by the breakdown of amino acids [13].
Fermentation 09 00830 g001
Figure 1. Diagram of the process by which proteins and lipids produce flavour substances [9,12].
Figure 1. Diagram of the process by which proteins and lipids produce flavour substances [9,12].
Fermentation 09 00830 g001
Staphylococcus carnosus is widely present in fermented meat products and plays an extremely important role in the fermentation of meat products. In [14], a study on branched-chain amino acid transaminases (BCATs) of Staphylococcus carnosus found that leucine, isoleucine, and valine transaminases were highly active, especially leucine transaminase, which promoted the formation of 4-methyl-2-ketovaleric acid from leucine during the fermentation process. This further led to the formation of 3-methylbutyryl-dihydroxy thioctic acid via the action of lipoic acid transferase, the generation of 3-methyl butyric acid via the action of acetyltransferase and 3-methylbutyryl coenzyme A, and finally, to 3-methyl butyraldehyde [15]. Figure 2 illustrates the pathway of leucine generation for the synthesis of 3-methylbutyraldehyde. 3-Methylbutyraldehyde has a very low threshold and contributes significantly to the flavour of fermented meat products. In turn, many sulphur-containing compounds are present in fermented meat products, and the reaction between 3-methylbutyraldehyde and sulphur-containing compounds produces a bacon-like flavour that has a significant impact on the typical flavour of the majority of fermented meat products.
Triglycerides and phospholipids are two common lipid molecules found in fermented meat products and are hydrolysed to free fatty acids under the actions of enzymes; these free fatty acids are further oxidized to different degrees to produce different volatile substances [16]. Lipid oxidation in fermented meat products mainly occurs through autooxidation and enzymatic oxidation. Autooxidation is mainly triggered by reactive oxygen radicals. A variety of compounds are produced due to the formation and decomposition of hydroperoxides, whereas enzymatic oxidation mainly relies on endogenous fat-oxidizing enzymes to catalyse the production of peroxides from unsaturated fatty acids, which can also promote the secondary oxidation of lipids to form flavour compounds.
The Maillard reaction, a nonenzymatic reaction between carbonyl compounds formed by the oxidation of reducing sugars, aldehydes, ketones and fats in the raw meat and proteins, peptides, amino acids, amines and ammonia, often occurs in fermented meat products [17]. Amino and carbonyl groups undergo dehydration condensation to form glucosamine, which then reacts with aldehydes, hydrogen sulfide and amino acids after rearrangement and deoxygenation to form various aroma substances [12]. In fermented meat products, the Maillard reaction is also often accompanied by the production of heterocyclic compounds containing N, S and O [18].
Table 1. Flavour precursors of fermented meat products.
Table 1. Flavour precursors of fermented meat products.
TypeFlavour Precursors
Free amino acids [19,20]Alanine, glycine, lysine, aspartic acid, valine, leucine, isoleucine, serine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid, histidine, tyrosine, arginine, tryptophan, proline, threonine, phenylalanine
Lipids [19,21]Triglycerides, phospholipids, oleic acid, linoleic acid
Reducing sugars [19]Starch, glucose, ribose
Nucleotides and peptides [19,22]Inosine, inosine, inosinic acid, guanylic acid, glutathione
Fermentation 09 00830 g002
Figure 2. Leucine production and synthesis via the 3-methylbutyraldehyde pathway [15,23].
Figure 2. Leucine production and synthesis via the 3-methylbutyraldehyde pathway [15,23].
Fermentation 09 00830 g002

3. Flavour Profiles in Fermented Meat Products

3.1. Dry-Cured Ham

Dry-cured ham is a fermented meat product made from pig hind legs (cow or sheep) with other auxiliary ingredients added after processing, curing, washing and air-drying in addition to the fermenting agent. Alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, esters, alkanes and acids are considered to be the main volatile compounds in hams [24]. China has a large variety of hams, including the more famous Jinhua ham, Xuanwei ham, Rugao ham, etc., and aldehydes have been isolated and identified as the most abundant and diverse volatile flavour substances in dry-cured ham [25]. In [26], the volatile flavour substances in Xuanwei ham were identified, amongst which aldehydes, which play a great role in contributing to the flavour of Xuanwei ham, were found to be the most abundant and diverse volatile compounds. Five types of aldehydes have been identified in ham: linear aldehydes, dialdehydes, allyl aldehydes, branched aldehydes and aromatic aldehydes. Ref. [27] Fifteen aldehydes were identified in lamb ham, accounting for 36.78% of its total flavour substances, and these aldehydes were the most abundant volatile flavour substances in terms of type and relative content. Ref. [28] The aldehydes acetaldehyde, methoxyacetaldehyde, 2-methylbutyraldehyde, benzaldehyde, phenylacetaldehyde, tridecanal, and hexadecanal were detected in Jinhua ham, with relatively high contents; thus, aldehydes play an extremely important role in the flavour composition of ham. Ref. [29] Some special aldehydes have been found in Xuanwei ham: furfural, 3-methional, (Z)-9,17-octadecadienal, and so on. Aldehydes with short carbon chains (C3 and C4) have sharp and pungent flavour characteristics; aldehydes with medium carbon chain lengths (C5~C9) have grassy, fatty and tallowy flavour characteristics; and aldehydes with long carbon chains (C10~C12) have citrusy vegetal flavour characteristics [30]. Due to the large contributions of hexanal, huxal and methoxyphenyl oxime to the volatile components of Xuanen ham, Rugao ham has a stronger grassy, pungent, sweet and rosy flavour than other types of hams.
In a previous study [31], it was found that in Rugao ham end products, the flavour compounds derived from fat included four alcohols, five aldehydes and three ketones. Moreover, the total content of these substances was much lower than that in Jinhua ham, so there are significant differences between these two types of hams in terms of flavour. Alcohols also account for a large proportion of the volatile flavour substances in ham products. Studies have shown that 1-octen-3-ol, a flavouring substance with a very low threshold value and the ability to impart a mushroom aroma to food products, plays a very important role in the flavour of food products [32]. Ref. [27] Nine alcohols, including 1-octen-3-ol, were found amongst the flavouring substances in lamb ham, which gives it a distinctive mushroom flavour. Due to the high flavour threshold of alcohols in ham, their proportion amongst the volatile flavour components is high, but their effect on flavour is not very strong [33]. The oxidation of fats in ham also produces ketones, which give the ham a creamy or fruity flavour [18]. Ref. [34] It is believed that 2,3-butanedione, which plays an important role amongst ketones, is derived from the Maillard reaction of α-amino acids and has a buttery and frankincense odour profile. Esters also play an important role in the flavour composition of hams and may originate from the esterification of various alcohols and acids, most of which produce a pleasant fruity flavour [35]. Short-chain esters have a pleasant fruity sweet character, and esters, such as ethyl butyrate and ethyl acetate, contribute positively to ham flavour. However, some of the esters produced from long-chain fatty acids exhibit a greasy flavour, and an excess of such esters can have a negative effect on ham flavour. Studies have shown that alkanes have a potential role in ham flavour, but the thresholds for all alkanes are very high, so their direct contribution to meat flavour is not significant [35]. Aliphatic hydrocarbons with lengths of C2 to C5 account for a large proportion of the volatile flavour components in meat, and the main hydrocarbons in ham include straight-chain hydrocarbons, cycloalkanes, olefins and diolefins [36]. Ref. [26] The main cycloalkanes identified in Xuanwei ham were cetyl ethylene oxide; olefins, such as 2-methyl-2,4-hexadiene, 1,3,5-hexadecatriene, and 1,13-tetradecadiene; and branched alkanes, such as 2-methyltetradecane, 4-methylpentadecane, and 5-propyldecane. However, the main alkane substances in Jinhua ham are octane, decane, and 2,6,10-trimethylhexadecane [37]. Acids are also the main volatile compounds in hams, and it is likely that these acids are mainly derived from the degradation of phospholipids and total triacylglycerols, which have a high threshold and therefore no direct effect on food flavour [38]. Certain heterocyclic organics also provide ham with a special flavours. Ref. [39] Five classes of furan compounds were detected in Jinhua ham, with monopentyl vinca having a grassy, liquorice-like aroma. This compound is important for the regenerative flavour of soybean oil. It was previously shown that linoleic acid is a precursor of this compound, and linoleic acid is also widespread amongst ham lipids as a flavour precursor substance. Ref. [40] Five heterocyclic compounds were identified in the study of volatile flavouring substances in Xuanwei ham, including 2-pentylfuran. In [41], this substance was found to provide ham with a distinct roasted flavour.
Microorganisms also influence the flavour of ham [42]. In a study of influences of microbes on the flavour of three famous Chinese hams, it was found that the fresh and sweet amino acids in Jinhua and Rugao hams were positively correlated with Staphylococcus and Tetracoccus. This is because Staphylococcus, the dominant benign genus in fermented ham, metabolizes amino acids during the fermentation process to produce benzaldehyde, which has a nutty aroma, inhibits spoilage microorganisms, and enhances the flavour quality of the ham [43]. Ref. [44] In a study on Tetracoccus, it was found that Tetracoccus in fermented foods can increase the contents of flavour substances such as organic acids, aldehydes and esters; therefore, it can be proven that Tetracoccus has a certain aroma-producing ability that is significantly positively correlated with the good flavour of ham. Salmonella spp. in Xuanwei ham were positively correlated with the highest content of hexanal. The overall flavour of various hams is similar, but due to the different contents of various common flavour substances and the presence of unique flavour substances, different kinds of hams are also formed. The more famous hams in China, Jinhua, Xuanwei and Rugao, have many differences in flavour. A comparison of these three major hams and their special flavour substances is shown in Table 2.

3.2. Sausage

Sausage is a fermented meat product formed by grating raw meat (usually pork, beef, sheep, or some fish), adding seasonings, and then infusing the raw meat into casings (pig or sheep intestines) to form a column for curing and fermentation [45]. Making meat into sausages as a fermentation and preservation technique has a long history in China; it extends the shelf life, gives the food a special flavour and beautiful colour, and allows the nutrients to be more easily absorbed. There are many types of sausages in China. Different raw meats, seasonings, physicochemical properties and microbial species in the fermentation environment influence the unique flavour of the final sausage product. The unique flavour of sausage is due to the fermentation process, as the proteins and lipids of the raw meat are broken down by endogenous enzymes in the raw material or by enzymes produced by microorganisms. This leads to the formation of flavour substances or free amino acids, other flavour precursors, aldehydes, esters, ketones, etc., which are an important basis for the formation of the flavour of sausage [15]. Furthermore, Ref. [46] found that 60% of the volatile flavouring substances in fermented sausages are derived from spices. Therefore, sausage flavour varies from region to region due to the addition of different spices for different tastes. Thus, the seasonings added during the sausage making are important contributors to the flavour of the sausage Ref. [47]. In studies of volatile flavour substances in sausages, it has been found that most terpenoids are derived from the added spices; for example, peppercorns produce a number of terpenoids. In [48], studies on the flavour composition of peppercorns revealed that these terpenes are mainly piperene, β-stigmasterene, β-watercressene, and δ-elemene, which are converted to 2-pentanol and 2-ethylhexanol during subsequent fermentation of the sausage, and have an impact on the flavour of the sausage. A common flavouring in sausages is garlic, in which during fermentation, allicin produces sulphur-containing compounds and their derivatives with an aromatic flavour. In addition to the sulphur-containing compounds, alcohols, such as propyl mercaptan, are also produced to give the sausage an oniony flavour.
Distinguished by their differences in flavour, Chinese sausages can be broadly classified into several categories, such as Cantonese sausages, Sichuan sausages, and Harbin dry sausages. Sichuan-style sausages are often seasoned with chillies and peppercorns, and their main flavours are usually salty and spicy. Due to the addition of chilli, Szechuan sausages have a unique spicy flavour, which can be attributed to the capsaicin inside the chilli used for seasoning. Capsaicin will stimulate TRPV1 in the human body, which in turn sends a signal to the brain to produce a pain signal. Finally, this pain signal is manifested in the taste as pungency [49]. Instead of adding large amounts of flavourings, wine is added in the production of Cantonese-style sausages. As a result, the volatile flavouring substances in Cantonese sausages contain large amounts of ethanol, which is also the precursor of many volatile flavouring substances, so there are also a large number of ethanol derivatives in Cantonese sausages. Ref. [50] The study of volatile flavour substances in the main body of Cantonese sausage revealed the presence of a large number of esters, such as ethyl acetate, ethyl butyrate, and ethyl caproate. These esters can give Cantonese sausage a unique fruity-sweet flavour; however, most of these ethyl esters are derived from ethanol via an esterification reaction. Ref. [51] A significant amount of ethyl palmitate was identified during the analysis of volatile flavouring substances in Cantonese sausages via GC-MS. Ethyl palmitate is an ester with a sweet flavour. In addition to the addition of sugar during the production process, this type of sweetened ester also has an important influence on the unique sweet flavour of Cantonese sausage. Ref. [52] A comparison of Cantonese sausage and Szechuan sausage revealed that the main volatile flavour substances in both types of sausage were hydrocarbons and esters, which accounted for approximately 80% of the overall volatile flavour substances; however, the proportion of hydrocarbons in Szechuan sausage was much higher than that in Cantonese sausage, and the proportion of esters was much lower than that in Cantonese sausage. This phenomenon may be caused by the addition of large amounts of flavourings during the production of Szechuan-style sausages, which provide large amounts of hydrocarbons to the final sausage product. In contrast, the addition of wine to Cantonese-style sausages results in high levels of esters in the final product. Table 3 lists a comparison of some volatile flavour substances between Szechuan sausages and Cantonese sausages.
In [53], a flavour analysis study of sausages found a higher proportion of aliphatic hydrocarbons, up to one-third of the volatile flavouring substances, was detected in sausages compared to ham, another fermented meat product. Moreover, aliphatic hydrocarbons make a significant contribution to the flavour of sausages, with limonene and laurose as representatives, which give sausages a special lemony flavour and sweet orange flavour, respectively. The source of these hydrocarbons is mostly from the flavourings, in contrast to ham, which has fewer hydrocarbons; this is also related to the fact that ham is not prepared with as many flavourings as sausages. Microorganisms make an important contribution to the development of flavour in sausages. Most of the microorganisms in traditional fermented sausages come from nature, with characteristics such as an unstable flora structure, while modern sausage-making processes often artificially add yeast, lactobacilli, staphylococci, etc., to help during fermentation. Ref. [54] A study on artificially added fermentation agents, such as Lactobacillus and Staphylococcus, when making fermented sausages revealed that the contents of 2-methylbutyraldehyde, ethyl 3-methylbutyrate and ethyl acetate were higher in the experimental group with artificially added fermentation bacteria, resulting in a more pronounced fruity and ester-like flavour of the sausages. This indicates that the correct addition of fermenting bacteria can make the volatile flavour substances in sausages more abundant and present in higher amounts.

3.3. Preserved Meat

As a traditional Chinese fermented meat product, bacon is usually made by curing raw meat with various kinds of auxiliary ingredients followed by natural air drying, sun drying (artificial baking is also possible), or in some areas, smoking or liquid smoking [55]. The unique way in which bacon is prepared allows the raw meat to have a longer shelf life and a distinctive flavour. Aldehydes, esters, alcohols, ketones and phenols are the main volatile flavouring substances in bacon, and what distinguishes bacon from ham and sausages is that the phenolic compounds provide a significant contribution to the bacon flavour [15,21,38]. In [56,57], the results of investigating the volatile flavour substances in bacon showed nine major volatile flavour substances in bacon from different regions, namely, hexanal, 3-methylbutanal, 3-methylpentanal, (E)-2-octanal, octanal, linalool, nonanal, caproic acid, and ethyl caproate. Combining different raw meat and auxiliary materials together and performing different production processes, the final product contains the above nine types of volatile flavour substances, so these types of volatile flavour substances may be the key to the unique flavour of bacon. Most of the aldehydes in bacon originate from the oxidative degradation of the fat in bacon. Ref. [20] In studies of bacon flavour, it has been found that the double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids in the meat fat of bacon raw materials are oxidized to produce peroxides, and these peroxides are further decomposed into aldehydes. Ref. [58] Aldehydes such as 2-methylbutyraldehyde, 3-methylbutyraldehyde and n-butyraldehyde, which are produced by the degradation of fat, were identified in a study of volatile flavour components of Zhenba bacon. In [59], it was shown that these aldehydes contain pleasant floral and fruity aromas.
In some regions, the bacon production process also involves smoking, and the phenols, aldehydes, and acids in the smoke or smoke solution can adhere to the surface of and penetrate into the bacon, which can also have an effect on the final flavour of the bacon product. Lignin is often contained in the smoke or fuming liquid, and during the smoking process, lignin decomposes to produce intermediates such as vinyl guaiacol, which in turn continue to react to produce the guaiacol congeners that provide the flavour of the smoke. Figure 3 illustrates the pathway by which lignin is converted into phenols. Ref. [60] It has been found that there are five phenols in the smoking liquid that contribute to the flavour of the food, namely eugenol, isoeugenol, guaiacol, phenol and cresol. These are the phenols that give bacon its unique smoked flavour. 3-Methylguaiacol, 4-methylguaiacol, 2,5-dimethylphenol and o-methoxyphenol were detected in Chongqing Chengkou bacon during the smoking process. Ref. [61] 2-Methylphenol, 2-methoxy-4-methylphenol, 4-ethyl-2-methoxyphenol, phenol, 3-methyl-2-nitrophenol, and 4-methylphenol were also identified in bacon from the Miaoling Mountain area. In [62], a study on the flavour of Sichuan bacon, cedrol was identified in the final product due to the use of cypress wood to smoke the bacon. Notably, cedrol imparts a special flavour to the cypress-smoked bacon. It was also further shown that the phenols and alcohols in the smoking liquid or the smoke of the preserved meat products after the smoking step provide an important contribution to the flavour.
Ester compounds are high in both the content and type of volatile flavouring substances in bacon and are second only to phenolic compounds in their overall proportion. The formation of esters in bacon occurs through complex pathways, which can be broadly classified into two categories. One is the esterification of alcohols in bacon, and the other pathway is due to the action of microorganisms [63]. Four esters, methyl butyrate, ethyl butyrate, ethyl acetate and methyl valerate, were identified in all experimental groups by different methods of assisting the curing of bacon [64]. Ref. [65] Ten groups of compounds, mainly methyl esters, were also identified in a flavour analysis of bacon from the Harbin region. These esters imparted a unique fruity flavour to the bacon products and provided an important contribution to the final flavour of the bacon products.
Fermentation 09 00830 g003
Figure 3. Pathways of the generation of phenolic compounds from lignin [22,66].
Figure 3. Pathways of the generation of phenolic compounds from lignin [22,66].
Fermentation 09 00830 g003

3.4. Cured Fish

Cured fish, a fermented meat product, is widely loved throughout China for its ability to extend the shelf life of fish and give it a special flavour. The process of preparing pickled fish usually involves slaughtering, gutting, scaling, curing, and air-drying (sun-drying) fresh fish [67]. There are numerous pickled fish products in China, such as Tongxiang pickled fish in Yunnan, sour fish in Guizhou, wine-dusted fish in Fujian, and stinky Mandarin fish in Huizhou. Fish meat is rich in proteins and lipids, which produce abundant volatile flavour substances after the fermentation process. The volatile flavour substances in traditionally cured fish usually include aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, and heterocyclic compounds. Refs. [68,69] Hexanal, nonanal, decanal, 3-methylbutanal, (z)-4-heptanal, benzaldehyde, 1-octen-3-ol, 1-penten-3-ol, 3-methylbutanol, heptanol, trimethylamine, indole, and methylindole were identified as the major volatile flavouring substances when the volatile flavouring characteristics of the cured fish were investigated. The proteins in fish provide an important contribution to the flavour of the final cured fish product. In [70], it was found that the distinctive waxy flavour of cured fish products was positively correlated with the soluble protein and amino acid nitrogen contents in the fish meat. Moreover, there was a highly significant negative correlation between waxy flavour and moisture, so to obtain cured fish with good flavour quality, it is necessary to ensure that the protein content in the fish meat is high and the moisture content is reduced. This also strongly suggests that air-drying (sun-drying) is important during the fish curing process. In addition to proteins, lipids are also important factors in the flavour of cured fish [68]. During fish fermentation, lipids continuously undergo hydrolysis and oxidation due to microbial as well as enzymatic reactions, producing flavour substances such as aldehydes, ketones, alcohols and unsaturated fatty acids. Unsaturated fatty acids as flavour precursors also provide an important contribution to the final flavour profile of cured fish.
Stinky Mandarin fish, a famous food in Anhui Province, is very popular in the region for its unique “smelling bad but eating good” flavour. Its distinctive odour is produced by a number of physical and chemical reactions with the proteins and fats mediated by microorganisms and enzymes during the fermentation process. A series of decarboxylation and deamination reactions of the amino acids in fish flesh occur under the actions of enzymes to produce volatile saline nitrogen, trimethylamine, hydrogen sulfide, methyl indole, etc. Although this process leads to the deterioration of the fish flesh, it imparts it with a distinctive flavour; in particular, the putrefactive and ammoniacal odour of trimethylamine provides an important contribution to the characteristic flavour of stinky Mandarin fish [71]. In [72], trimethylamine was identified in the flavour profile of stinky Mandarin fish, and analysis of the HS-SPME-GC/MS results yielded an OAV value of trimethylamine of 1610.93, which shows that trimethylamine has a very high odour activity value and contributes significantly to the flavour of stinky Mandarin fish. Linalool is frequently identified amongst the volatile flavouring substances of Smelly Mandarin fish [72,73]. Linalool has a sweet, floral, lily of the valley-like aroma, which positively affects the flavour quality of stinky Mandarin fish. In [74], it was found that the addition of suitable fermenting bacteria could lead to higher contents of linalool, α-pinitol and other aroma substances in stinky Mandarin fish, which was helpful in reducing the negative malodour produced by the fermentation of this fish. [75] The separation and identification of volatile flavour substances in stinky Mandarin fish via GC-MS revealed that aldehydes accounted for the highest percentage, with approximately 62.6% of the total flavour components.
Sour fish, which is also a cured fish product, is very popular in Guizhou and Guangxi. Due to the differences in production methods as well as raw materials, there are also differences in the flavour characteristics of sour fish and stinky Mandarin fish. Ref. [76] Flavour characterization of Guizhou sour fish identified 10 terpenoids, which were the most abundant amongst the volatile flavour substances, accounting for 43.3% of the total. The high terpenoid content in Guizhou sour fish may be attributed to the addition of more spices during its preparation, amongst which chili peppers, peppercorns, fennel, and cinnamon are common. These spices contribute significantly to the terpenoid contents, such as limonene and linalool, amongst the final volatile flavour substances. People in different regions have different techniques for making ceviche, resulting in different flavours in ceviche products. However, since these pickled fish are all made from fermented freshwater fish, they share similarities in their flavour profiles. Table 4 lists the similarities and differences of some of the flavour substances between Anhui stinky Mandarin fish and Guizhou pickled fish.

3.5. Sour Meat

Sour pork is a fermented meat product popular in Guizhou, Jiangxi and Hunan in China. The production method of sour meat uses fresh pork as the raw material, which is put on a charcoal fire to burn the skin. Then, the charred black dirt is scraped off to remove the pig’s hair, and then the product is sliced, auxiliary materials are added with kneading, and the final meat is sealed in the fermentation table [78]. This method not only gives the pork a unique flavour and amino acids that are easily absorbed by the body, but also extends its shelf life. Aldehydes, alcohols, esters, ketones, acids and other compounds are produced during sour meat fermentation, with esters playing a major contributing role, followed by aldehydes, alcohols and others [79,80,81]. Esters, as the main contributors of volatile flavour substances in sour meat, have a positive impact on improving the flavour quality of sour meat by providing a fruity and fresh odour to the sour meat product. Table 5 lists some of the esters in sour meat.
Some 50 volatile flavour substances were identified in a study of sour meat flavour [82], and esters were the most abundant, with 23 identified. Ref. [83] Additionally, experiments were carried out to study volatile flavour substances during sour meat fermentation, and esters were consistently at their highest levels during all stages of sour meat fermentation. Lactic acid bacteria play an extremely important role in the fermentation process of sour meat. The continuous reproduction of lactic acid bacteria during the fermentation process leads to a continuous increase in the lactic acid content during the fermentation process, reducing the pH of the sour meat from 6 to 3.5, which ultimately results in the formation of the unique sour flavour of the sour meat products [84]. In [85], eight acids other than lactic acid, including acetic acid, were identified from the analysis of the flavour profile of the sour meat, using GC–IMS, and the presence of these acids is more conducive to the formation of a distinctive sour flavour in the sour meat product. Alcohols make an important contribution to the flavour of sour meat, and n-hexanol, phenylethanol, and 1-octen-3-ol are often identified amongst the volatile flavouring substances in sour meat [81,86]. Phenylethanol has also been identified as one of the main flavour components of sour meat in studies on Dong sour meat [79].
Table 5. Some esters in sour meat and their contributions to the aromatic profile.
Table 5. Some esters in sour meat and their contributions to the aromatic profile.
Flavour SubstanceFlavour
Ethyl butyrate [81]Aroma of apple
Ethyl caprate [81,87]Fruity, aroma of wine
Ethyl acetate [81,87,88]Aroma of grape
Ethyl oenanthate [81]Aroma of pineapple
Ethyl caprylate [81]Aroma of brandy
Ethyl lactate [87]Fruity
L- Ethyl lactate [88]Aroma of wine
Ethyl phenylacetate [88]Aroma of honey

4. Conclusions and Prospects

Chinese fermented meats are a diverse set of products, with different raw materials and production processes used in different regions resulting in differences in the flavour characteristics of the final fermented meat products. However, most Chinese fermented meat products share common processes, such as curing and fermentation, so there are many similarities in the flavour precursors formed during the fermentation process, resulting in some similarities in the flavour substances. The volatile flavouring substances in Chinese fermented meat products mainly include aldehydes, alcohols, ketones and acids.
Dry-cured ham is rich in proteins and fats, and during the fermentation process, amino acids are degraded and unsaturated fatty acids are oxidized, generating many aldehydes. Aldehydes are the most abundant compounds identified amongst the volatile flavouring substances in ham, and their thresholds are also low, which plays an important role in the formation of the flavour of ham. Unlike ham, sausages have a distinctive flavour due to the large number of seasonings added during production that provide many hydrocarbons (pepper in Szechuan-style sausages) or alcohols (wine in Cantonese-style sausages) to the flavour of the sausage. Due to the special characteristics of smoking in some areas, the special flavour substances produced in smoked materials become attached to the surface of the bacon to give it a unique smoked flavour. Pickled fish products are endowed with a unique flavour due to a series of physicochemical reactions of amino acids that occur during the fermentation process to produce trimethylamine, which is the main source of the odour of pickled fish products, but the fresh floral odour provided by the linalool produced during the fermentation process has a positive impact on pickled fish odour. The main contributors to the flavour of sour meat are esters, which provide the distinctive aroma, and acids produced during the fermentation process, such as lactic acid and acetic acid, which provide the distinctive flavour of sour meat. Through research on the diversity of flavour characteristics of fermented meat products, flavour substances and their pathways of formation have been identified, the fermentation mechanism has been revealed, and quality control of fermented meat products has been achieved, providing an effective theoretical basis to improve processes and flavours to standardize modern fermented meat products.

Funding

This work was supported by the earmarked fund for CARS-43, the Sichuan Science and Technology Program (2023YFN0056) and Liangshan Science and Technology Program (22ZDYF0249, 21CGZH0001).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

  1. Liu, Y.; Yu, Q.; Wan, Z.; Li, H.; Liu, J.; Wang, J.; Liu, Y. Research progress on the effect of antioxidant activity of fermentation agents on the quality of fermented meat products. Food Sci. 2021, 42, 302–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Sivamaruthi, B.S.; Kesika, P.; Chaiyasut, C. A Narrative Review on Biogenic Amines in Fermented Fish and Meat Products. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2021, 58, 1623–1639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Zhang, P.; Zhao, J.; Zang, J.; Peng, C. Research progress on the relationship between characteristic flavors and microorganisms in fermented meat products. Food Ind. Sci. Technol. 2023, 45, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Yu, C.; Yao, D.; Man, Y.; Wang, C. The harm of biogenic amines in fermented meat and control. J. Meat Res. 2010, 24, 41–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Pedro, D.; Saldaña, E.; Lorenzo, J.M.; Pateiro, M.; Dominguez, R.; Dos Santos, B.A.; Cichoski, A.J.; Campagnol, P.C.B. Low-Sodium Dry-Cured Rabbit Leg: A Novel Meat Product with Healthier Properties. Meat Sci. 2021, 173, 108372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Fan, W.; Zhang, H.; Ding, Y.; Han, S.; Yang, G. Research progress of flavor substances in fermented meat products. Feed Expo 2013, 26, 44–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Munekata, P.E.S.; Pateiro, M.; Tomasevic, I.; Domínguez, R.; Da Silva Barretto, A.C.; Santos, E.M.; Lorenzo, J.M. Functional Fermented Meat Products with Probiotics—A Review. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2022, 133, 91–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Wang, H.; Xu, J.; Liu, Q.; Xia, X.; Sun, F.; Kong, B. Effect of the Protease from Staphylococcus Carnosus on the Proteolysis, Quality Characteristics, and Flavor Development of Harbin Dry Sausage. Meat Sci. 2022, 189, 108827. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Rizzi, G.P. The Strecker Degradation of Amino Acids: Newer Avenues for Flavor Formation. Food Rev. Int. 2008, 24, 416–435. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Petrova, I.; Aasen, I.M.; Rustad, T.; Eikevik, T.M. Manufacture of Dry-Cured Ham: A Review. Part 1. Biochemical Changes during the Technological Process. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2015, 241, 587–599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Monforte, A.R.; Martins, S.I.F.S.; Silva Ferreira, A.C. Impact of Phenolic Compounds in Strecker Aldehyde Formation in Wine Model Systems: Target and Untargeted Analysis. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2020, 68, 10281–10286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Nashalian, O.; Yaylayan, V.A. Thermally Induced Oxidative Decarboxylation of Copper Complexes of Amino Acids and Formation of Strecker Aldehyde. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 8518–8523. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Andrade, M.J.; Córdoba, J.J.; Casado, E.M.; Córdoba, M.G.; Rodríguez, M. Effect of Selected Strains of Debaryomyces Hansenii on the Volatile Compound Production of Dry Fermented Sausage “Salchichón”. Meat Sci. 2010, 85, 256–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Beck, H.C.; Hansen, A.M.; Lauritsen, F.R. Catabolism of Leucine to Branched-Chain Fatty Acids in Staphylococcus Xylosus. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2004, 96, 1185–1193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Li, J.; Wang, W.; Wang, X. Origin and formation of flavor substances in fermented sausage. Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 40, 160–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Domínguez, R.; Pateiro, M.; Gagaoua, M.; Barba, F.J.; Zhang, W.; Lorenzo, J.M. A Comprehensive Review on Lipid Oxidation in Meat and Meat Products. Antioxidants 2019, 8, 429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Wang, Y.; Xie, J.; Zhang, C.; Xu, Y.; Yang, X. Effect of Lipid on Formation of Maillard and LIPID-MAILLARD Meaty Flavour Compounds in Heated Cysteine-xylose-methyl Linoleate System. Flavour Fragr. J. 2022, 37, 274–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Bork, L.V.; Haase, P.T.; Rohn, S.; Kanzler, C. Formation of Melanoidins—Aldol Reactions of Heterocyclic and Short-Chain Maillard Intermediates. Food Chem. 2022, 380, 131852. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. Li, J.; Yang, Y.; Zhao, Q.; Tang, C.; Qin, Y. Research progress on the relationship between flavor precursors and flavor quality meat. Chin. J. Anim. Sci. 2019, 55, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Wang, J.; Zhou, C.; Wang, C.; Zheng, Y.; Ye, K.; Tang, C. Application of Zhou Guanghong ultrasonic technology in meat processing and its influence on meat flavor precursors. Food Ind. Sci. Technol. 2019, 40, 320–323+335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Chen, X.; Fan, S. Study on flavor of cured meat of Fan Suqin. Meat Ind. 2010, 31, 31–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Zhang, S.; Li, J.; Liu, X.; Tian, H.; Meng, Y. Study on flavor nucleotides and volatile flavor substances of triploid rainbow trout cultured in Ma Rui Qinghai Province. Food Ind. Sci. Technol. 2022, 43, 310–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Liu, R.; Ma, Y.; Chen, L.; Lu, C.; Ge, Q.; Wu, M.; Xi, J.; Yu, H. Effects of the Addition of Leucine on Flavor and Quality of Sausage Fermented by Lactobacillus Fermentum YZU-06 and Staphylococcus Saprophyticus CGMCC 3475. Front. Microbiol. 2023, 13, 1118907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Wu, W.; Zhou, Y.; Wang, G.; Zhu, R.; Ge, C.; Liao, G. Changes in the Physicochemical Properties and Volatile Flavor Compounds of Dry-cured Chinese Laowo Ham during Processing. J. Food Process. Preserv. 2020, 44, e14593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Xu, H.; Deng, J.; Li, X.; Wu, Y.; Li, P. Differences and correlation analysis of bacterial community structure and flavor in three kinds of Xu Baocai dry-cured ham. Food Res. Dev. 2022, 43, 14–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Qiao, F.; Ma, C. Analysis of volatile flavor compounds in the processing of Ma Changwei Xuanwei ham. Food Res. Dev. 2006, 27, 24–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Wang, Y.; Guo, X.; Huang, L.; Wang, Y.; Wang, B.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, Q. Electronic nose and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry were used to analyze the aroma components of mutton ham at different storage times. Food Sci. 2019, 40, 215–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Bai, L. Study on Flavor Grade of Jinhua Ham. Master’s Thesis, Bohai University, Jinzhou, China, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  29. Ding, X.; Wang, G.; Zou, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Ge, C.; Liao, G. Influence of Partial Replacement of NaCl with KCl on the Volatile Compounds of Xuanwei Ham Investigated by Gas Chromatography-Ion Mobility Spectrometry Combined with Multivariate Statistical Analysis. Food Sci. 2020, 41, 190–198. [Google Scholar]
  30. Chen, X. Study on Antioxidant Activity and Flavor of Jinhua Ham during Hanging Fermentation Stage; Shanghai Institute of Applied Technology: Shanghai, China, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  31. Zhang, X. Study on Fatty Oxygenase and Flavor of Rugao Ham; Nanjing Agricultural University: Nanjing, China, 2008. [Google Scholar]
  32. Xia, F. Comparative Study on the Quality of Jinhua Ham Produced by Traditional Technology and Modern Technology; Zhejiang University: Hangzhou, China, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  33. Wang, F.; Gao, Y.; Wang, H.; Xi, B.; He, X.; Yang, X.; Li, W. Analysis of Volatile Compounds and Flavor Fingerprint in Jingyuan Lamb of Different Ages Using Gas Chromatography–Ion Mobility Spectrometry (GC–IMS). Meat Sci. 2021, 175, 108449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Gao, S.; Song, X.; Chen, L.; Zhang, J.; Liu, Y. Analysis of the Volatile Compounds of Jinhua Ham by Monolithic Material Sorptive Extraction Coupled with Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. Food Sci. 2015, 36, 113–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. El Hadi, M.; Zhang, F.-J.; Wu, F.-F.; Zhou, C.-H.; Tao, J. Advances in Fruit Aroma Volatile Research. Molecules 2013, 18, 8200–8229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Liu, X.; Mou, B.; Ju, M.; CUI, F.; Li, G.; Piao, C.; Cui, M. Characterization of Flavor Components of Dry-Cured Ham with Different Salt Substitute Formulations Using Solid Phase Microextraction-Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, Electronic Nose and Electronic Tongue. Food Sci. 2022, 43, 246–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Song, X. Study on Flavor Grade of Jinhua Ham and Xuanwei Ham; Shanghai Ocean University: Shanghai, China, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  38. Guo, X.; Lu, S.; Wang, B.; Wang, Q. Research progress on flavor analysis of Chinese traditional ham. Grain Oil 2019, 32, 18–21. [Google Scholar]
  39. Dang, Y.; Liu, Z.; Gao, X.; Gao, X.; Cao, J.; Bao, G. Determination of Volatiles in Ham by Gas Chromatography with Olfactory Detection. Int. J. Food Eng. 2016, 12, 323–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Yao, P.; Qiao, F.; Yan, H.; Ma, C. Isolation and Identification of Volatile Compounds of Xuanwei Ham. Food Sci. 2004, 25, 146–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Flores, M.; Grimm, C.C.; Toldrá, F.; Spanier, A.M. Correlations of Sensory and Volatile Compounds of Spanish “Serrano” Dry-Cured Ham as a Function of Two Processing Times. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1997, 45, 2178–2186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Xu, Y. Effect of Microorganisms on Flavor of Dry-Cured Ham and Its Application; Hefei University of Technology: Hefei, China, 2022. [Google Scholar]
  43. Niu, X. Screening of Staphylococcus Intermedius in Fermented Ham and Its Application in Fermented Sausage; Harbin University of Commerce: Harbin, China, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  44. Wang, B.; Zhou, C.; Li, T.; Lu, L.; Chen, C.; Du, G.; Fang, F. Tetracococcus halophilus and its application in fermented food. Food Ferment. Ind. 2017, 43, 267–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Xing, B.; Zhou, T.; Gao, H.; Wu, L.; Zhao, D.; Wu, J.; Li, C. Flavor Evolution of Normal- and Low-Fat Chinese Sausage during Natural Fermentation. Food Res. Int. 2023, 169, 112937. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Ordóñez, J.A.; Hierro, E.M.; Bruna, J.M.; Hoz, L.D.L. Changes in the Components of Dry-Fermented Sausages during Ripening. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 1999, 39, 329–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Duan, W.; Tang, X.; Xiong, Y.; Chen, J. Comparative study on volatile components of Salami sausage. Food Ind. Sci. Technol. 2010, 31, 89–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Li, G.; Gao, Y.; Liu, W. Study on Aroma Compounds of the Black Piper. Food Sci. 2003, 24, 128–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Costa, R.M.; Liu, L.; Nicolelis, M.A.L.; Simon, S.A. Gustatory Effects of Capsaicin That Are Independent of TRPV1 Receptors. Chem. Senses 2005, 30, i198–i200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Liu, D.; Zhou, G.; Xu, X. A Novel Analytical Method for Key Odor Compounds of Chinese Sausage. Meat Res. 2011, 25, 15–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Zeng, X.; Bai, W.; Chen, H.; Huang, B. At the same time, the volatile components of Cantonese sausage were analyzed by distillation extraction/gas-mass spectrometry. Food Ferment. Ind. 2010, 36, 139–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Chen, Y. Study on volatile flavor of Cantonese sausage in different regions of Guangdong Province. Agric. Prod. Process. 2015, 14, 61–64. [Google Scholar]
  53. Li, H.; Chen, Y.; Li, M.; Cao, L. Optimization and flavor analysis of Sichuan sausage seasoning formula. Food Ind. Sci. Technol. 2017, 38, 221–225+249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Zhang, X.; Lu, H.; Ye, C.; Pei, Z.; Yan, H. Effects of different starter cultures on bacterial phase, volatile flavor components and quality of fermented sausage. J. Northeast Agric. Univ. 2021, 52, 45–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Tong, G. Research on Making Craft of Mount Qingcheng Bacon. Chin. Seas. 2014, 39, 98–101+110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Guo, J.; Wang, Q.; Chen, C.; Yu, H.; Xu, B. Effects of Different Smoking Methods on Sensory Properties, Free Amino Acids and Volatile Compounds in Bacon. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2021, 101, 2984–2993. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Mao, Y.; Li, Y.; Yun, J.; He, K.; Wang, R.; Wu, S. Analysis on the changes of volatile flavor substances in the production of traditional Longxi cured meat. Food Ferment. Ind. 2021, 47, 144–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Zhu, L.; Li, C.; Meng, Y.; Wang, B.; Wu, G.; Li, C.; Yao, P.; Ma, X.; Ma, W.; Chen, Y. The changes of volatile flavor components of Zhenbala meat during storage were analyzed by gas chromatography-ion migration spectrometry. J. Food Saf. Qual. Insp. 2022, 13, 4832–4839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Carrapiso, A.I.; Noseda, B.; García, C.; Reina, R.; Sánchez Del Pulgar, J.; Devlieghere, F. SIFT-MS Analysis of Iberian Hams from Pigs Reared under Different Conditions. Meat Sci. 2015, 104, 8–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  60. Chang, H.; Peng, R.; Tang, C. Volatile Flavor Compounds of Chongqing Chengkou Bacon. Food Sci. 2016, 37, 120–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Chen, Y.; Wang, X.; Zhou, W.; Nie, Q.; Feng, T. Analysis on flavor quality of cured meat with low sodium salt solution and Miaoling traditional cured meat. Packag. Eng. 2021, 42, 93–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Zhang, Y.; Yun, Z.; Zhu, M.; Gou, X.; Huang, Y. Effect of bamboo leaf extract concentrated liquid combined with bamboo rod smoking on flavor quality of cured pork. Food Ferment. Ind. 2022, 48, 123–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Cano-García, L.; Rivera-Jiménez, S.; Belloch, C.; Flores, M. Generation of Aroma Compounds in a Fermented Sausage Meat Model System by Debaryomyces Hansenii Strains. Food Chem. 2014, 151, 364–373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Xi, L.; Sun, Y.; Jiang, S.; Wen, C.; Ding, W. Evaluation of Effects of Ultrasound-Assisted Curing on the Flavor of Chinese Bacon. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2023, 96, 106424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Du, H.; Chen, Q.; Liu, Q.; Wang, Y.; Kong, B. Evaluation of Flavor Characteristics of Bacon Smoked with Different Woodchips by HS-SPME-GC-MS Combined with an Electronic Tongue and Electronic Nose. Meat Sci. 2021, 182, 108626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Li, Z.; Bai, X.; Wei, X.-Y.; Dilixiati, Y.; Fan, Z.-C.; Kong, Q.-Q.; Li, L.; Li, J.-H.; Lu, K.-L.; Zhao, J.; et al. A Solid Acid-Catalyzed Depolymerization of Pine Lignin to Obtain Guaiacol Using a Hydrogen-Free Strategy. Fuel Process. Technol. 2023, 249, 107843. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Yu, J. Optimization of Traditional Preserved Fish Processing Technology and Its Influence on Product Characteristics; Chengdu University: Chengdu, China, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  68. Gu, S.; Tang, J.; Zhou, X.; Zheng, H.; Zhou, H.; Ding, T. Quality Change and Aroma Formation in Cured Fish during Traditional Sun Drying Processing. Food Sci. 2019, 40, 36–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Zhang, Q.; Ding, Y.; Gu, S.; Zhu, S.; Zhou, X.; Ding, Y. Identification of Changes in Volatile Compounds in Dry-Cured Fish during Storage Using HS-GC-IMS. Food Res. Int. 2020, 137, 109339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Zhang, Y.; Zheng, J. The relativity analysis between main composition with flavor quality of cured fish. Chin. Seas. 2009, 34, 46–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Wang, W. Nutrient Composition, Physicochemical Properties, Flavor Characteristics and Bacterial Phase Composition of Smelly Mandarin Fish; Hefei University of Technology: Hefei, China, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  72. Liang, Z.; Huang, N.; Ma, X.; Du, B. Effect of mixed lactic acid bacteria fermentation on flavor characteristics of smelly Mandarin fish. Food Ferment. Ind. 2023, 54, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Bao, R.; Liu, S.; Ji, C.; Liang, H.; Yang, S.; Yan, X.; Zhou, Y.; Lin, X.; Zhu, B. Shortening Fermentation Period and Quality Improvement of Fermented Fish, Chouguiyu, by Co-Inoculation of Lactococcus Lactis M10 and Weissella Cibaria M3. Front. Microbiol. 2018, 9, 3003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Zhou, Y.; Yang, M.; Yin, J.; Yan, Y.; Lin, X.; Xie, N. Effects of Lactobacillus sake on edible quality and volatile flavor substances of smelly Mandarin fish. Chin. J. Food Sci. 2021, 21, 160–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Li, C.; Wu, J.; Li, Y.; Wang, X.; Zhao, Q.; Xu, K.; Dai, Z.; Gu, T. Analysis of flavor substances and flavor active substances of smelly Mandarin fish. Food Ferment. Ind. 2013, 39, 178–184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Wang, W. Study on Protein Degradation and Flavor Formation Mechanism of Sour Fish during Fermentation; Jiangnan University: Wuxi, China, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  77. Ke, Z. Study on the Identification of Flavor Substances of Smelly Mandarin Fish and the Influence of Selected Strains on Its Flavor; Hebei University of Technology: Tianjin, China, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  78. Han, J.; Xing, L.; Zhang, W. Screening and identification of high quality fermentation strains in sour meat of Dong people in Guizhou Province. Food Ferment. Ind. 2023, 49, 85–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Yu, B.; Zhou, H.; Li, Z. Application of solid-phase microextraction for analysis of volatile flavors produced by traditional fermented meat. J. Hunan Agric. Univ. (Nat. Sci. Ed.) 2007, 9, 232–234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Huang, Q.; Teng, H.; Song, H.; Li, T.; Chen, L. Analysis of volatile components of Xiangxi sour meat by solid phase microextraction combined with GC-MS. Food Ind. 2016, 37, 277–280. [Google Scholar]
  81. Zhong, Y.; Chen, W.; Duan, Y.; Jiang, J.; Zhu, X.; Li, K.; Wang, Y. Determination of Changes in Key Volatiles during Sour Meat Fermentation by Solid-Phase Microextraction Coupled with Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. Meat Res. 2021, 35, 20–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Jiang, C.; Shang, W.; Zhang, S.; Liang, H.; Ji, C.; Chen, Y.; Lin, X. Screening and Enzymatic Properties of Lipase-producing Strains and Effects of Their Inoculation on Flavor Compounds of Fermented Sour Meat. Food Sci. 2023, 44, 106–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Fan, X.; Chang, R.; Zhao, Z.; Zhou, C. Changes of volatile flavor substances in sour meat fermentation and their effects on quality. Food Ferment. Ind. 2019, 45, 68–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Li, Z. Effects of different carbon sources on microbial flora and biogenic amines in traditional sour meat. Food Ind. Sci. Technol. 2006, 28, 78–81+84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Zhao, X.; Feng, J.; Laghi, L.; Deng, J.; Dao, X.; Tang, J.; Ji, L.; Zhu, C.; Picone, G. Characterization of Flavor Profile of “Nanx Wudl” Sour Meat Fermented from Goose and Pork Using Gas Chromatography–Ion Mobility Spectrometry (GC–IMS) Combined with Electronic Nose and Tongue. Foods 2023, 12, 2194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Mi, R.; Chen, X.; Xiong, S.; Qi, B.; Li, J.; Qiao, X.; Wang, S.; Zhang, L. Bacterial Community Diversity and Flavor Characteristics of Traditional Naturally Fermented Sour Meat. Food Sci. 2019, 40, 85–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Mi, R. Effect of Lactobacillus Starter Cultures on the Volatile Flavor Components of Sour Meat. Meat Res. 2018, 32, 48–55. [Google Scholar]
  88. Li, W.; Bai, Y.; Chen, X.; Mi, R.; Xiong, S.; Wang, S. Effect of Acidic Protease on Microbiota and Flavor Quality of Sour Meat during Fermentation. Food Sci. 2022, 43, 158–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table 2. Special flavour substances in different hams.
Table 2. Special flavour substances in different hams.
Type of HamFlavouring Substances
Jinhua Ham [28]3-Methylbutyraldehyde, 2-decadienal, 2,4-undecadienal, 5-pentyl-dihydro-2-(3H)-furanone, 5-ethyl-dihydro-2-(3H)-furanone, 6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone, 5-methyl-2-isopropyl-cyclohexanone
Xuanwei Ham [29]Furfural, 3-(methylthio)propionaldehyde, (Z)-9,17-octadecadienal, 3-thiophenecarboxaldehyde, 5-ethyl dihydro-2(3H)-furanone, dihydro-5-pentyl-2(3H)-furanone, 6,10-dimethyl-5,9-octadecadienone-2,2-pentylfuran
Rugao Ham [31]2E,4E-Decadienal, 2Z-heptenal, 2,4-pentadienal, 2Z-heptenal, triethylene glycol, 2-penten-1-ol, 1-penten-3-ol
Table 3. Comparison of some flavour substances found in Sichuan-style sausage and Cantonese-style sausage.
Table 3. Comparison of some flavour substances found in Sichuan-style sausage and Cantonese-style sausage.
TypeFlavour Substance
Identical Flavour Substances [51,52,53]Cyclohexane, 3-methyl-pentane, limonene, esters ((E)-9-oleic acid methyl ester, ethyl butyrate, ethyl oleate, ethyl palmitate, ethyl caproate, lauric acid, ethyl caproate and ethyl caprylate)
Unique Flavouring Substances in Szechuan Sausage [53]2-Pentanol, 2-ethylhexanol, propanethiol, diallyl thiosulfinate
Unique Flavouring Substances in Cantonese Sausage [51,52]Ethyl valerate, methyl 8, 11-octadecadienoate, methyl 14-methyl-pentadecanoate, methyl palmitate
Table 4. Comparison of some flavour substances in Anhui stinky Mandarin fish and Guizhou sour fish.
Table 4. Comparison of some flavour substances in Anhui stinky Mandarin fish and Guizhou sour fish.
TypeFlavour Substance
Identical Flavour Substances [75,76,77]phenethyl alcohol, 3-methyl-1-butanol, 4-methyl-1-pentanol, 1-octen-3-ol, octanal, heptanal, ethyl acetate, limonene, terpinene, linalool
Unique Flavouring Substances in Anhui stinky Mandarin fish [75,77]Trans-2-octen-1-ol, (E)-trans-2-octenal, ethyl 3-phenylpropanoate, linalyl acetate, sabinene
Unique Flavouring Substances in Guizhou sour fish [76]2-Heptanol, benzyl alcohol, cis-4-(isopropyl)-1-methylcyclohex-2-en-1-ol, ethyl 9-hexadecenoate, o-isopropyltoluene terpene
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Hao, M.; Wang, W.; Zhang, J.; Chen, L. Flavour Characteristics of Fermented Meat Products in China: A Review. Fermentation 2023, 9, 830. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9090830

AMA Style

Hao M, Wang W, Zhang J, Chen L. Flavour Characteristics of Fermented Meat Products in China: A Review. Fermentation. 2023; 9(9):830. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9090830

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hao, Mai, Wei Wang, Jiamin Zhang, and Lin Chen. 2023. "Flavour Characteristics of Fermented Meat Products in China: A Review" Fermentation 9, no. 9: 830. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9090830

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop