Food Wastes as a Potential New Source for Edible Insect Mass Production for Food and Feed: A review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Edible Insect Species Commonly Mass Produced for Food, Feed, and Other Applications
3. Edible Insect Species That Can Utilize Food Waste as Feed and Their Nutritional Requirements in Mass Production
4. Rearing Conditions and Insect Mass Technologies
5. Nutritional Composition, Ingredient Characterization, and Food Functional Properties of Edible Insect Species
6. Fermentation Process in Edible Insect Chain Production
7. Legislation, Food Safety, and Potential Hazards Associated with the Edible Insect Food-to-Food Production Chain
8. Edible Insect Rearing Using Food Wastes: Towards Green and Sustainable Food Waste Management
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Insect species | Common name | Developmental Stage | Source | Application | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bombyx mori | Mulberry silkworm | Larvae, pupae | Farming | Human food, animal feed | [11,15,37] |
Tenebrio molitor | Yellow mealworm | Larvae | Farming | Human food, feed for pets, zoo animals and fish, polystyrene degradation | [15,28,31,33,34] |
Galleria mellonela | Waxworm | Larvae | Farming | Human food, model for human diseases study | [7,30,36] |
Rhynchophorus ferrugineus | Red palm weevil | Larvae, pupae | Semi-cultivation | Human food | [38,39] |
Rhynchophorus phoenicis | Palm weevil | Larvae | Semi-cultivation | Human food | [39,40] |
Acheta domesticus | House cricket | Adult | Farming | Human food, pet food, protein extraction | [15,41] |
Gryllus bimacalatus | Mediterranean field cricket | Adult | Farming | Animal feed | [30] |
Imbrasia belina | Mopane worm (MW) | Larvae (caterpillar) | Farming | Human food | [42] |
Musca domestica | Housefly | Larvae | Farming | Animal and fish feed | [43,44] |
Lucilia sericata | Green bottlefly | Larvae(maggot) | Semi-cultivation | Animal and fish feed, Medical treatment | [30,31,32] |
Omphisa fuscidentalis | Bamboo caterpillar | Larvae | Semi-cultivation | Human food | [1,4] |
Oecophylla smaragdina | Weaver ant | Adult, larvae, pupae, eggs | Semi-cultivation | Human food, medicine use | [38,45] |
Patanga succincta | Grasshopper | Adult | Wild harvesting | Human food | [46] |
Oxya spp. | Grasshopper | Adult | Wild harvesting | Human food | [29] |
Locusta migratoria | Locust | Adult, nymphs | Farming, wild harvesting | Human food, pet food and fish bait | [11,47,48] |
Apis mellifera | Honeybee | Adult | Farming, semi-cultivation | Human food, medical uses (honeybee venom, propolis, royal jelly) | [7,30,49] |
Hermetia illucens | Black soldier fly (BSF) | Larvae | Farming | Human food, animal feed | [50] |
Macrotermes spp. | Termite | Adult | Wild harvesting | Human food | [51,52] |
Encosternum spp. | Stinkbug | Adult | Wild harvesting | Human food | [29,53] |
Vespula spp. | (Social) wasp | Larvae | Wild harvesting | Human food | [54,55] |
Panchoda marginata | Sun beetle | Larvae | Farming | Human food, animal and fish feed | [7,56] |
Order | Family | Species | Common Name | Developmental Stage | Degraded Material | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coleoptera | Tenebrionidae | Tenebrio molitor L. | Mealworm | Larvae | Spent grains and beer yeast, bread remains, biscuit remains, potato steam peelings, maize distillers’ dried grains with solubles | [28] |
Coleoptera | Tenebrionidae | Tenebrio molitor L. | Mealworm | Larvae | Mushroom spent corn stover, highly denatured soybean meal, spirit distillers’ grains | [64] |
Coleoptera | Tenebrionidae | Zophobas atratus Fab. | Mealworm | Larvae | Spent grains and beer yeast, bread remains, biscuit remains, potato steam peelings, maize distillers’ dried grains with solubles | [28] |
Coleoptera | Tenebrionidae | Alphitobius diaperinus | Mealworm: | Larvae | Spent grains and beer yeast, bread remains, biscuit remains, potato steam peelings, maize distillers’ dried grains with solubles | [28] |
Diptera | Stratiomyidae | Hermetia illucens | Black soldier fly | Larvae | Waste plant tissues, garden waste, compost tea, catering waste, food scraps | [68] |
Diptera | Muscidae | Musca domestica | Housefly | Larvae | Mixture of egg content, hatchery waste, and wheat bran | [31] |
Orthoptera | Gryllidae | Acheta domesticus | House cricket | Adult | Grocery store food waste after aerobic enzymatic digestion, municipal food waste heterogeneous substrate | [41] |
Orthoptera | Gryllidae | Teleogryllus testaceus | Cambodian field cricket | Adult | Rice bran, cassava plant tops, water spinach, spent grain, residues from mungbean sprout production | [67] |
Macronutrients | Micronutrients | Minerals | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Carbohydrates | Lipids | Proteins | Sterols *** | Vitamins | Elements ***** |
Glucose * Fructose * Galactose * Arabinose ** Ribose ** Xylose ** Galactose ** Maltose * Sucrose * | Linoleic (Pfa) *** Linolenic (Pfa) *** Phospholipids **** | Globulins Nucleoproteins Lipoproteins Insoluble proteins Amino acids: Leucine *** Isoleucine *** Valine *** Threonine *** Lysine *** Arginine *** Methionine *** Histidine *** Phenylalanine *** Tryptophan *** Tyrosine **** (major component of sclerotin) Proline **** (important during flight initiation) Serine **** Cysteine **** Glycine **** Aspartic acid **** Glutamic acid **** | Cholesterol Phytosterols (β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol) Ergosterol | A: Retinol + α-and β- carotene (Ls) B1: Thiamin (Ws) B2: Riboflavin (Ws) B3: Nicotinamide (Ws) B4: Choline (Ws) B5: Pantothenic acid (Ws) B6: Pyridoxine (Ws) B12: Cobalamine (Ws) C: Ascorbic acid (Ls) D: Cholecalsiferol and Ergocalsiferol (Ls) E: α-tocopherol (Ls) K: Phyloquinone (Ls) | Hydrogen Oxygen Carbon Nitrogen Calcium + Phosphorus +++ Chlorine Potassium +++ Sulphur Sodium +++ Magnesium +++ Iron ++ Copper +++ Zinc +++ Silicone Iodine Cobalt Manganese +++ Molybdenum Fluorine Tin Chromium Selenium Vanadium |
Food * | Chemical Composition | Reference |
---|---|---|
Wheat bran | Total N (2.560%), protein (16.2%), available carbohydrates (24.6%), dietary fiber (40.2%), total fat (5.3%), ash (5.4%), water (8.4%), vitamins (C, E, K1, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9), minerals and inorganics (Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn, In, Mn, Cr, Se, Mo, Co, Ni, Cd, Pb), carbohydrates (fructose, glucose, sucrose), saturated fatty acids (C16:0, C18:0, C20:0), monounsaturated fatty acids (C16:1 n-7, C18:1 n-9, C20:1 n-11), polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18:2 n-6, C18:3 n-3, C20:4 n-6), amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, cysteine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine) | [71,72] |
Soy flour | Total N (6.520%), protein (37.2%), available carbohydrates (20.2%), dietary fiber (10.4%), total fat (22.2%), ash (5.1%), water (5.1%), vitamins (A, β-carotene, E, K1, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9), minerals and inorganics (Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Z, In, Mn, Cr, Se, Ni, Hg, Cd, Pb), carbohydrates (sucrose, starch, exoses, pentoses, uronic acids, cellulose, lignin), saturated fatty acids (C12:0, C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C20:0, C22:0), monounsaturated fatty acids (C16:1 n-7, C18:1 n-9, C20:1 n-11), polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18:2 n-6, C18:3 n-3), amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, cysteine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine) | [71,73] |
Spent grain | Total N (1.890%), protein (11.0%), available carbohydrates (64.3%), dietary fiber (8.5%), total fat (4.2%), water (8.7%), vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B6, B9, E), minerals and inorganics (Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn, In, Mn, Cr, Se, Mo, Co, Ni, Hg, Cd, Pb), amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine) | ([71,74] |
Spent brewer’s yeast | Total N (1.340%),%), protein (8.4%), available carbohydrates (12.7%), dietary fiber (6.2%), total fat (1.9%), ash (1.8%), water (69.0%), vitamins (B1, E, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, C), minerals and inorganics (Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Z, In, Mn, Se, Ni, Cd), carbohydrates (mannose, β-(1,3), (1,6)-glucan, α-(1,4)-glucan, chitin) saturated fatty acids (C12:0, C16:0, C18:0), monounsaturated fatty acids (C16:1 n-7, C18:1 n-9), polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18:2 n-6), amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, cysteine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine), nucleic acids | [71,75,76,77] |
Bread remains | Total N (1.400%), protein (8.0%), available carbohydrates (48.0%), dietary fiber (4.0%), total fat (4.3%), ash (1.8%), water (33.9%), vitamins (E, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9), minerals and inorganics (Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Z, In, Mn, Cr, Se, Ni, Hg, As, Cd, Pb), carbohydrates (fructose, glucose, sucrose), saturated fatty acids (C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C20:0), monounsaturated fatty acids (C16:1 n-7, C18:1 n-9, C20:1 n-11), polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18:2 n-6, C18:3 n-3), amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, cysteine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine) | [71,78] |
Potato steam peelings | Starch (25%), non-starch polysaccharide (30%), acid insoluble and acid soluble lignin (20%), protein (18%), lipids (1%), and ash (6%), | [71,79] |
Potato | Total N (0.324), protein (2.0%), available carbohydrates (15.9%), total fat (0.3%), dietary fiber (1.4%), ash (0.9%), water (79.5%), vitamins (A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, C), minerals and inorganics (Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn, In, Mn, Cr, Se, Ni, Hg, As, Cd, Pb), carbohydrates (fructose, glucose, sucrose, starch, exoses, pentoses, uronic acids, cellulose), saturated fatty acids (C16:0, C18:0), monounsaturated fatty acids (C16:1 n-7, C18:1 n-9), polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18:2 n-6, C18:3 n-3), amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, cysteine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine) | [80] |
Dry egg whites | Total N (13.200%), protein (82.3%), available carbohydrates (6.8%), dietary fiber (0.0%), total fat (0.0%), ash (5.1%), water (5.8%), vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12, D, E), minerals and inorganics (Cl, Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn, In, Mn, Cr, Se), amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, cysteine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine), cholesterol (16 mg/100 g) | [71,81] |
Rice bran | Total N (2.24%), protein (13.4%), available carbohydrates (28.7%), dietary fiber (21.0%), total fat (0.0%), ash (10.0%), water (6.1%), vitamins (B1, B2, B3), minerals and inorganics (Na, K, Ca, P, Fe), carbohydrates (crude fiber 11.5%), amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, cysteine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine) | [71,82] |
Carrot | Total N (0.11%), protein (0.7%), available carbohydrates (5.8%), dietary fiber (2.9%), total fat (0.4%), ash (0.7%), water (89.5%), vitamins (A, β-carotene, Ε, Κ1, B1, B2, B3, Β5, Β6, Β7, Β9, C), minerals and inorganics (Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn, In, Mn, Cr, Se, Ni, Hg, As, Cd, Pb), carbohydrates (fructose, glucose, sucrose, hexoses, pentoses, uronic acids, cellulose, lignin), saturated fatty acids (C16:0, C18:0), monounsaturated fatty acids (C18:1 n-9), polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18:2 n-6, C18:3 n-3, C20:4 n-6), amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, cysteine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine) | [71,83] |
Lettuce | Total N (0.204%), protein (1.3%), available carbohydrates (0.8%), dietary fiber (1.3%), total fat (0.4%), ash (0.8%), water (95.5%), vitamins (A, β-carotene, Ε, Κ1, B1, B2, B3, Β5, Β6, Β7, Β9, C), minerals and inorganics (Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn, In, Mn), carbohydrates (fructose, glucose, sucrose, starch, hexoses, pentoses, uronic acids, cellulose, lignin), saturated fatty acids (C12:0, C16:0, C18:0), monounsaturated fatty acids (C16:1 n-7, C18:1 n-9, C20:1 n-11, C22:1 n-9), polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18:2 n-6, C18:3 n-3, C18:4 n-3, C20:4 n-6, C20:5 n-3, C22:5 n-3, C22:6 n-3), amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, cysteine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine) | [71,84] |
Cassava plant | Total N (0.218%), protein (1.4%), available carbohydrates (36.3%), dietary fiber (1.8%), total fat (0.3%), ash (0.6%), water (59.7%), vitamins (A, β-carotene, B1, B2, B3, Β5, Β6, Β7, Β9, C), minerals and inorganics (Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn, In, Mn, Cr, Se, Ni, Hg, As, Cd, Pb), carbohydrates (fructose, glucose, sucrose, starch, hexoses, pentoses, uronic acids, cellulose, lignin), saturated fatty acids (C16:0, C18:0), monounsaturated fatty acids (C16:1 n-7, C18:1 n-9), polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18:2 n-6, C18:3 n-3, C20:4 n-6), amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, cysteine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine) | [71,85] |
Peanut oil | Total N (0.000%), protein (0.0%), available carbohydrates (27.5%), dietary fiber (0.0%), total fat (72.5%), ash (0.0%), water (0.0%), vitamins (E, γ-tocopherol), minerals and inorganics (Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn), saturated fatty acids (C16:0, C18:0, C20:0, C22:0, C24:0), monounsaturated fatty acids (C16:1 n-7, C18:1 n-9, C20:1 n-11), polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18:2 n-6, C18:3 n-3, C22:6 n-3, other fatty acids) | [71,86] |
Insect Species | Common Name | Develop-mental Stage | Crude Protein (% Dry Weight) | Lipids (% Dry Weight) | Carbohydrates, Vitamins, Minerals etc. | General Comments | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tenebrio molitor | Yellow mealworm | Larvae | 70–76% | 6–12% | c.a. 10% | Leucine, lysine, methionine + cysteine, threonine, and valine were the limiting amino acids comparing with FAO/WHO requirements. Major fatty acids were linoleic acid (C18:2, 30–38%), oleic acid (C18:1, 24–34%), and palmitic acid (C16:0, 14–17%). | [66] |
Tenebrio molitor | Yellow mealworm | Larvae | 46.9–48.6% | 18.9–27.6% | - | Mealworm species can be grown successfully on diets composed of organic by-products. Diet affects mealworm growth, development, and feed conversion efficiency. Diets high in yeast-derived protein appear favorable with respect to reduced larval development time, reduced mortality, and increased weight gain. | [28] |
*Zophobas atratus Fab. | Mealworm | Larvae | 34.2–42.5% | 32.8–42.5% | - | [28] | |
*Alphitobius diaperinus | Mealworm | Larvae | 64.3–65.0% | 13.4–21.8% | - | [28] | |
*Acheta domesticus | House cricket | Adult | 10.2–28.6% | 2.2–12.0% | Carbohydrates (as crude fiber): 13.2–28.9% Minerals: - Vitamins: - | It is possible, using very simple means, to rear local field crickets at ambient temperature in Cambodia. Agricultural and food industry by-products tested here also have potential for use as cricket feed, alone or in combination. | [67] |
Acheta domesticus | House cricket | Adult | 16% | - | - | Crickets fed the solid filtrate from food waste processed at an industrial scale via enzymatic digestion were able to reach a harvestable size and achieve feed and protein efficiencies. Crickets reared on waste substrates of sufficient quality might be the most promising path for producing crickets economically | [41] |
Acheta domesticus | House cricket | Adult | 15.6% ± 8.1% | 4.56% ± 2.15% | Carbohydrates: - Minerals: Na, Fe, Zn, Ca, I Vitamins: B12, B2 | Data show considerable variation within insect species | [29] |
Insect Species | Common Name | Developmental Stage | Characterization of Food Properties | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bombyx mori | Silkworm | Pupae | Amino acid analysis, lipid determination | [89] |
Tenebrio molitor | Yellow mealworm | Larvae | Amino acid composition (ion exchange chromatography), protein quality (color, protein content, and molecular weight), molecular weight distribution of the insect protein fractions (SDS-PAGE), foam ability and foam stability, rheological properties | [90] |
Tenebrio molitor | Yellow mealworm | Larvae | Amino acid composition, water absorption capacity (WAC), fat absorption capacity (FAC), protein solubility, microstructure and color, rheological properties | [91] |
Acheta domesticus | House cricket | Adult | Amino acid composition (ion exchange chromatography), protein quality (color, protein content, and molecular weight), molecular weight distribution of the insect protein fractions (SDS-PAGE), foam ability and foam stability, rheological properties | [90] |
Musca domestica | Housefly | Pupae | Moisture, protein, fat, ash, acid detergent fiber (ADF), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), minerals, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and selected carotenoid determination | [92] |
Apis mellifera | Honeybee | Eggs, larvae, adult | Determination of water content, crude fiber (structural carbohydrates), fat, free nitrogen extract and mineral salts, crude proteins, Vitamin B2 | [93] |
Hermetia illucens | Black soldier fly | Larvae | Moisture, protein, fat, ash, acid detergent fiber (ADF), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), minerals, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and selected carotenoid determination | [92] |
General Hazard | Specific Hazard | Substance | Insect | Problem | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chemical | Pesticides/fungicides | Organophosphorus pesticides (malathion, sumithion) | Locust | Toxic, carcinogenic | [106] |
Persistent organic pollutants | Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) | House cricket | Bioaccumulative and toxic | [107] | |
Heavy metals | Cd | Mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) | Toxic, carcinogenic | [108,109,110] | |
As | Agrotis infusa moth (Lepidoptera) | Toxic, carcinogenic | [111] | ||
Ld | Cricket | Toxic, carcinogenic | [105,112] | ||
Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd | Insect larvae(not specified) | Toxic, carcinogenic | |||
Antibiotics | Chloramphenicol | Silkworm (Bombyx mori) | Prohibited use in animal production | [113] | |
Insect toxic substances (for defense or repellent purposes, manufactured by the insect itself or accumulated by the insect via its environment or food) | Quinones | Bombardier beetle | - | [105] | |
Cyanogenic toxic compounds (linamarin or lotaustralin) | Butterfly | - | [105] | ||
Melanization process because of the appearance of toxic products | Larvae of Galleria mellonella infected by a fungus | - | [105] | ||
Phenolic compounds: benzoquinone | Tenebrionidae: Ulomoides dermesetoides, flour beetles (adults) Tribolium confusum and Tribolium castaneum | Cytotoxic against the human lung carcinoma epithelial cell line A-549, DNA damage, possible carcinogen | [98] | ||
Venom (with bristles) | Coleoptera Larvae of Trogoderma spp. | Envenomation by dietary route, intestinal trauma due to the bristles found on the insect, ulcerative colitis | [105] | ||
Antinutritional substances | Hydrocyanic acid | Yam beetle (Heteroligus meles) | Anoxia, highly toxic | [114] | |
Tannins | Yam beetle (Heteroligus meles), ant, termite, cricket, Zonocerus variegatus (grasshopper) | Protein precipitation, toxic | [114,115,116] | ||
Physical | Foreign bodies | Materials from the processes as with any other processed food | - | Choking, injury, toxic, pain, allergy | [105] |
Insect parts | Sting, sharp rostrums, pines, coarse hairs, cuticles, wings | - | Choking, asphyxia, pain, allergy | [102] | |
Allergen | Insect colorants | Carmine dye | Cochineal insects (Dactylopius coccus Costa, Coccus cacti L.) | Anaphylaxis, urticarial, erythematous eruption | [98] |
Insect proteins | Lentil pest proteins | Lentil pests (Bruchus lentis) | Infestation | [117] | |
Cross-reactive proteins: tropomyosin and arginine kinase | Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) | Allergic shock | [118] | ||
Insect enzymes | - | Caterpillars (Lophocampa caryae) | Drooling, difficulty swallowing, pain, and shortness of breath | [98] | |
Insect allergens | Venom | Bee, wasp, hornet | Anaphylactic shock, pain | [105] | |
Chitin | Various edible insect species | Allergic reaction | [105] | ||
Microbial | Parasitics | Human protozoan parasites | Black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) | Intestinal myiases | [119] |
Human protozoan parasites | Cockroaches and some Diptera | Gastrointestinal diseases, toxoplasmoses | [120] | ||
Bacteria | Salmonella Shigella Vibrio spp. E. coli Yesrinia eneterocolitica Campylobacter Listeria monocytogenes Clostridium perfrigens | Yellow meal beetle (Tenebrio molitor) Desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) Silkmoth (Bombyx mori) Cricket (Acheta domesticus) Whole locust (Locusta migratoria) | Salmonellosis Shigellosis Vibriosis Diarrhea Yesriniosis Campylobacteriosis Listeriosis Clostridial myonecrosis | [121,122,123] | |
Fungi | Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Cladosporium,Phycomycetes | - | Mycotoxins | [98,105] | |
Non-conventional transmissible agents (NCTA) | Prions | Sarcophaga carnaria pupae | Scrapie in hamsters | [105] | |
Prion proteins | Fly larvae, mites | Scrapie (sheep), mad cow disease (cattle) | [124] |
© 2019 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Varelas, V. Food Wastes as a Potential New Source for Edible Insect Mass Production for Food and Feed: A review. Fermentation 2019, 5, 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation5030081
Varelas V. Food Wastes as a Potential New Source for Edible Insect Mass Production for Food and Feed: A review. Fermentation. 2019; 5(3):81. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation5030081
Chicago/Turabian StyleVarelas, Vassileios. 2019. "Food Wastes as a Potential New Source for Edible Insect Mass Production for Food and Feed: A review" Fermentation 5, no. 3: 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation5030081