Next Article in Journal
A Comparative Study of the Antioxidant and Antidiabetic Properties of Fermented Camel (Camelus dromedarius) and Gir Cow (Bos primigenius indicus) Milk and the Production of Bioactive Peptides via In Vitro and In Silico Studies
Previous Article in Journal
Incorporation of Agglomerated Spirulina platensis Powder in Yogurt: A Strategy for Enhancing Nutritional Quality and Bioactive Compounds
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Fermentation
Volume 11
Issue 7
10.3390/fermentation11070390
fermentation-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

In Vitro Fermentation Characteristics of Pelagic Sargassum for Inclusion in Integral Diets for Ruminants

by
Luis Alberto Canul-Ku
1,
Fernando Casanova-Lugo
2,*,
Edgar Aguilar-Urquizo
1,
Ingrid Valdivieso-Pérez
1,
Darwin Arcos-Álvarez
1,
Jorge Canul-Solís
3,
Luis Castillo-Sánchez
3,
Alfonso Chay-Canul
4,
Benito Dzib-Castillo
5 and
Angel Piñeiro-Vázquez
1,*
1
Tecnológico Nacional de México/I.T. Conkal, Avenida Tecnológico Mérida, Conkal 97345, Yucatan, Mexico
2
Tecnológico Nacional de México/I.T. Zona Maya, Carretera Chetumal–Escárcega km 21.5, el Ejido Juan Sarabia, Othon P. Blanco 77960, Quintana Roo, Mexico
3
Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto Tecnológico de Tizimín, Tizimín 97000, Yucatan, Mexico
4
División Académica de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, km 25. Carretera Villahermosa-Teapa, R/A La Huasteca, Centro 86280, Tabasco, Mexico
5
Tecnológico Nacional de México/I.T. Chiná, Calle 11, Col. Centro, Chiná 24050, Campeche, Mexico
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Fermentation 2025, 11(7), 390; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation11070390
Submission received: 27 May 2025 / Revised: 2 July 2025 / Accepted: 3 July 2025 / Published: 8 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Industrial Fermentation)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

Pelagic sargassum arriving in the Mexican Caribbean is a mixture of brown macroalgae containing polysaccharides, minerals, and secondary metabolites with potential in ruminant diets. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of the inclusion of sargassum in integral diets (ID) on in vitro fermentation characteristics. A completely randomized design was used. The treatments were different levels of sargassum (ICD: 0%, ID10: 10%, ID20: 20% and ID30: 30%) added to a basal substrate (a mixture of Pennisetum purpureum Vc. CT-115 hay, corn, soybean, and molasses). Rumen fluid was obtained from five male lambs with a body weight of 40 ± 3 kg. In vitro gas production (IVGP) as well as dry matter degradability (DMD) and organic matter degradability (DOM) increased linearly (p < 0.0001) as the proportion of sargassum increased at 24, 48, and 72 h. Rumen fluid pH decreased (p < 0.05) with 30% inclusion at 48 h, while protozoan concentration was similar (p > 0.05) in all treatments with respect to the control at all evaluation times. These results indicate that the inclusion of pelagic sargassum in integral concentrated diets improves fermentative parameters, and its inclusion in diets for ruminants is feasible. This opens up a window of opportunity for its study as a novel additive or unconventional supplement. However, in vivo studies are necessary to rule out harmful effects on animal health and performance.

1. Introduction

In some parts of the world, several species of seaweeds have been used as feed for farm animals because of their high nutritional value and their beneficial properties on health, yield, and quality of derived products [1,2]. However, despite being an abundant resource and not competing for water and soil with conventional crops used as raw material in the preparation of diets, they have been little studied [3]. In this regard, every year large amounts of pelagic sargassum (a mixture of brown algae, mainly: Sargassum natans and Sargassum fluitans) arrive on the coasts of the Mexican Caribbean from West Africa [4], which represent a threat to coastal ecosystems, tourism, and the local and national economy [5,6,7]. Further, the annual cost of removing sargassum from beaches is more than $300,000 per kilometer of beach [8,9,10].
Brown seaweeds are rich in macro and micro minerals (Ca, P, K, Mg, S, Fe, I, Cu, Mn and Se, mainly) highly bioavailable to ruminants compared to inorganic sources [11]; they contain polysaccharides and polyphenolic compounds such as phlorotannins and other molecules that can modify the ruminal microbiome helping to reduce CH4 emissions [1,11,12,13,14,15,16,17]. The Phlorotannins selectively affect the abundance of cellulolytic bacteria and reduce methanogenic archaea without compromising feed fiber utilization [18,19]. Consequently, the production of volatile fatty acids (VFA), DMD, and DOM increases due to a redirection of H2 to other metabolic pathways [19,20]. Therefore, the management and sustainable use of sargassum as a potential raw material in diets for ruminants would help to reduce its negative impact on the economy and the environment in the region [8,21,22].
Among the limitations of the use of pelagic sargassum in ruminant feed are: (a) its low DM (10 to 12%) and OM content (50 to 60%) and a high concentration of minerals that reaches 40% of the DM and (b) the presence of heavy metals, among which arsenic (As) stands out with levels higher than 500 mg kg−1 DM [23,24,25]. However, the concentration of As in algae can be reduced by more than 50% using techniques involving hot water, citric acid, and fermentation with lactobacillus, although secondary metabolites are also altered [26]. According to in vitro studies with other algae species, it is feasible to include high levels in concentrated diets without negative effects on ruminal fermentation [20,27]. Based on the above, we hypothesize that the inclusion of pelagic sargassum as part of concentrated diets for ruminants improves the in vitro fermentation parameters, while also revealing the extent to which brown algae could improve animal productivity. Thus, the objective of this study was to determine the effect of the inclusion of sargassum in integral diets on in vitro fermentation parameters, in order to evaluate its potential in ruminant diets.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Location

The study was carried out in the laboratory of Advanced Agroecosystems Studies of the Technological Institute of the Mayan Zone, Quintana Roo, Mexico, located at coordinates 18°30′57.20″ N 88°29′21.04″ W, at 7 masl [28], with an Aw1 climate [29].

2.2. Animal Management

The management and care of the animals were according to the Mexican Official Standard-062-Z00 1999 [30], and according to the animal handling and welfare standards of the Technological Institute of the Mayan Zone. Five hair lambs weighing 35 ± 3 kg body weight were used as rumen fluid donors, under grazing conditions on star grass (Cynodon nlemfuensis); after grazing, they were housed in a pen (5 × 5 m) where they had free access to water and 200 g of commercial “Engorda Ovinos” feed (Campi®, Yucatan, Mexico city, Mexico; 15% CP) per animal/day. The lambs were dewormed with Closantel 50 mg/mL (5% Closantel®, Wyeth LLC, Madison, NJ, USA) at a dose of 10 mg kg−1 body weight.

2.3. Sample Preparation

The basal substrate used for the in vitro trial was an integral diet for growing sheep according to NRC [31], based on corn, soybean, Taiwan grass hay (Pennisetum purpureum Vc. CT-115, harvested at 60 days of regrowth) and molasses with different levels of sargassum inclusion: 0/100 (ICD: 0%), 10/90 (ID10: 10%), 20/80 (ID20: 20%) and 30/70 (ID30: 30%), formulated to contain the same concentration of CP (12%, respectively). The chemical composition of the mixtures is presented in Table 1. The sargassum was collected in May of 2023 on the coast of Quintana Roo, Mexico, located at coordinates 18°57′55.93″ N latitude and 87°36′43.72″ W longitude. Once collected, the sargassum was partially sundried for 8 h and subsequently dried in a forced-air oven at 60 °C for 48 h. The CT-115 grass hay, corn, soybean, and sargassum were ground to a particle size of 1 mm using a Wiley mill (Thomas Wiley® Laboratory Mill, Swedesboro, NJ, USA).

2.4. In Vitro Trial and Experimental Design

Ruminal fluid (solid and semisolid phases) was obtained through an esophageal probe prior to morning grazing [32] and conserved at 39 °C in a thermos to transport it to the laboratory, where it was filtered in four layers of gases and saturated with CO2. The inoculum was prepared by mixing the rumen fluid with a buffer solution in a ratio of 10:90 [33]. Once the inoculum was prepared, 90 mL was added to 48 amber flasks with a capacity of 120 mL in which 1 g of substrate had been previously placed. In addition, 24 flasks were used as blanks (only with ruminal fluid) to correct the gas production.
A completely randomized design with four treatments, four replicates (n = 4), and three incubation periods (24, 48, and 72 h) was used, for a total of 12 amber flasks per treatment. In vitro gas production (IVGP) was recorded at 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 30, 48, and 72 h of incubation.

2.5. In Vitro Gas Production

Volume of gas was measured according to the procedure proposed by Theodorou et al. [34]. To measure pressure changes, a pressure transducer was used. The kinetics of gas production were evaluated using the Gompertz model [35]:
Y = A exp {−exp [1 + be/A (LAG − t)]},
where:
Y = total production of gas accumulated (mL);
A = theoretical maximum gas production (mL);
b = maximum rate of gas production (mL/h), which occurred at the point of inflection of the curve;
LAG = lag time (h), defined as the intercept of the time-axis of the tangent line at the point of inflection; and
t = time.
The parameters a, b, and LAG were estimated using a non-linear regression analysis, for which the Origin Pro 8 program was used. These parameters were used to evaluate the kinetics of in vitro gas production according to the methodology described by Machado et al. [36].

2.6. Fermentation Parameters

The pH and the population of protozoa in rumen fluid were determined at 24, 48, and 72 h of incubation, while in vitro DMD and DOM were evaluated at 24, 48, and 72 h of incubation. The pH was determined with a multiparametric pH edge® meter (Products HANNA® instruments, Mexico city, Mexico). For protozoa count, the technique proposed by Ogimoto and Imai [37] was used; 2 mL of the inoculum obtained after 24, 48 and 72 h of incubation was mixed with 2 mL of methyl-green formalin saline (MFS); 1 mL of the solution was centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 15 min; the supernatant was removed and 1 mL of distilled water was added to the precipitate; the mixture was shaken and a drop was placed in each compartment of the Neubauer chamber (Fuchs-Rosenthal; manufactured by Hausser Scientific, Horsham, PA, USA). Each sample of each replicate (n = 4) was counted in triplicate (a total of 12 counts per treatment) using an optical microscope (Olympus CX21, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan) with a 40× objective lens. To estimate the degradability of DM and OM, the formula of Choi et al. [14] was used; after each incubation period, the substrate contained in each amber vial was filtered in nylon bags (made of Dacron® with pore size of 45 μm) and washed three times with water and; subsequently the bags were dried in an oven at 60 °C for 48 h to obtain the dry weight of the residual sample. To determine the degradability of OM, the remaining samples of the nylon bags were incinerated in a muffle at 600 °C for 8 h.

2.7. Chemical Analysis

Samples were analyzed according to the procedures described in AOAC [38]; for dry matter (DM) method 934.01 was used, for crude protein (CP) method 954.01, and for ash (AS) method 942.05. Neutral detergent fiber (aNDF: assayed with a heat stable amylase and expressed inclusive of residual ash) and acid detergent fiber (ADF: expressed inclusive of residual ash), and lignin (sa: determined by solubilization of cellulose with sulphuric acid) were determined by sequential procedures according to Van Soest et al. [39] using the ANKOM 2000 fiber Analyzer (ANKOM Technology Corp., Macedon, NY, USA).

2.8. Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with the PROC GLM procedure of SAS Version 8 [40] for a completely randomized design. In vitro gas production kinetics were analyzed using the Gompertz model [35]. Tukey’s test was used for comparisons of means between treatments. The results were considered statistically significant at a value of p < 0.05.

3. Results

3.1. Chemical Composition

Differences were observed in the chemical composition of the diets due to the effect of sargassum inclusion, where the concentration of DOM (90.09 to 83.93%), NDF (52.04 to 32.35%) and ADF (31.94 to 19.02%) decreased as the level of sargassum inclusion increased and vice versa with lignin content (2.06 to 2.49%); however, as expected, no effect on CP and DM content was observed. The decrease in fiber in the substrate was not solely due to the level of sargassum inclusion; the high concentration of NDF (69.31%) and ADF (45.35%) in CT-115 grass compared to sargassum also had an influence. It can be observed that the inclusion level of the grass decreased from 64.20 to 15.46% as the sargassum level increased from 0 to 30% (Table 1).

3.2. Total Gas Production and Characteristics of In Vitro Fermentation

The IVGP increased linearly (p < 0.0001) at 24 (from 255.27 to 311.10 mL g−1 DM), 48 (from 342.00 to 389.92 mL g−1 DM) and 72 h (from 416.33 to 493.42 mL g−1 DM) of incubation with sargassum inclusion level and the lowest gas generation was found in ICD at all evaluation times (Figure 1). Consequently, DDM and DOM increased linearly (p < 0.0001) at 0, 24, 48, and 72 h of incubation (Table 2).
The pH of the rumen fluid decreased (p < 0.0010) linearly at 48 h with sargassum inclusion level, and the lowest value was found in DI30 (6.69); while at 24 and 72 h of incubation, there were no differences (p > 0.05). Despite the differences in pH values reported in the present study (Table 3), they are within the optimal range (5.66–7.47).

3.3. Protozoan Population

The total protozoan population was different (p < 0.05) at 24 h of incubation, and the lowest concentration was observed in ID30; while the genera Entodinium and Holotrich were similar (p > 0.05) at all inclusion levels and evaluation times (Table 3).

4. Discussion

4.1. Total Gas Production and Characteristics of In Vitro Fermentation

Total gas production is related to substrate degradability, volatile fatty acid production, and microbial growth in the rumen [41,42,43]. Despite the differences in pH values reported in the present study, where the lowest pH was observed at 48 h in ID30 (Table 3), these were within the optimal range (5.66–7.47) for optimal microbial growth [44]. This can be attributed to the physicochemical properties of the Sargassum genus of algae. The results of chemical analyses of Sargassum revealed that it has a low NDF and ADF content. Soluble fiber is fermented rapidly in the rumen, and thus, a large number of organic acids are produced during the decomposition process. In addition, pelagic sargassum contains other types of polysaccharides that are highly bioavailable to rumen microorganisms. However, after 72 h, no effects were observed between treatments. This is because ruminal microorganisms need a period of adaptation to the substrates, and once they adapt and increase their population, the rate of digestibility and fermentation efficiency in ruminants increases. These results agree with Canul-Ku et al. [25], who observed a linear decrease in rumen fluid pH at 48 h when evaluating increasing levels of pelagic sargassum from 10 to 30% added to Stargrass hay. In contradiction, the addition of Sargassum fusiforme, Sargassum fulvellum, and Undaria pinnatifida at a level of 10% to a Timothy grass hay did not cause changes in rumen fluid pH [14,45,46]. These three species of brown algae, when added at a level of 5% as ethanolic extracts in Timothy grass hay, modified the pH of the rumen liquid at 24 and 72 h of incubation and the highest value was found with S. fusiforme [18]; however, when they were included to a better-quality mixture (Timothy grass and corn grain mixture in a 60:40 ratio), no effects were observed although pH values at 48 h were below 6.0 [19], which does not agree with the results of the present study.
PGIV, DMD, and DOM increased linearly (p ˂ 0.0001) with sargassum inclusion level in all incubation periods (Table 2 and Figure 1). The increase in total gas emissions could be responsible for the ruminal fermentation characteristics, which are largely affected by the pelagic sargassum inclusion. The present study revealed an improvement in the DMD and DOM in all fermentation periods, which could be related to the ability of non-fibrous carbohydrates and minerals present in sargassum to improve energy availability for rumen microorganisms. These results are partially consistent with those obtained by Canul-Ku et al. [25] when evaluating pelagic sargassum, who indicate that despite a slight decrease in IVGP, they observed higher DMD and DOM. Similarly, Maia et al. [20], when including 25% Saccharina latissima to a total mixed ration, reported no change in IVGP; however, DDM and DOM increased. Other studies carried out with brown algae indicate that despite the changes that occur in IVGP in some incubation periods, the DDM potential is not affected [18,19,45,46]. On the other hand, Widiawati and Hikmawan [47] observed a linear increase in IVGP, DMD, and DOM with increasing dose of the red alga Eucheuma cottonii added to an Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum). Contrary to all the studies mentioned above, Rjiba-Ktita et al. [27] report a linear decrease in IVGP and DOM when the dose of green algae increased from 10 to 40% in a substrate based on concentrated feed. Therefore, the effect of algae on fermentative parameters depends on the species of algae and the quality of the substrate. However, there is also an interaction effect between the species of algae and the basal substrate [48].
Algae cause changes in rumen microbiome, which modifies digestion and fermentation characteristics [20,21,36,46,48,49], towards a more cellulolytic profile [14,18]. This is due to its bioactive compounds (phlorotannins, polysaccharides such as: fucoidan, alginate, laminarin and mannitol), which improve DDM with an increase in fibrolytic bacterial populations an increase in fibrolytic bacterial populations such as Fibrobacter succinogenes and Ruminococcus flavefaciens. According to Huang et al. [50], phlorotannins promote the growth of the genera Ruminococcus, Lachnospiraceae, and Fibrobacter, which correlates with higher DDM. As with other fermentative parameters, nutrient degradability is influenced by the species of algae [42].
The brown algae that make up pelagic sargassum are characterized by high levels of ash, low organic matter content, and high concentrations of neutral detergent insoluble protein (NDIP), which reduce DMD and CP degradability [27,51]. In contrast, red algae contain high concentrations of CP, low ash levels, and high digestibility. With regard to amino acid degradability, brown algae are low in comparison to red algae. This is due to their phlorotannin content and chemical structure of their cell walls; however, the physical properties (anatomy and morphology) and amino acid composition among different species of algae also play an important role [42]. An advantage of the latter is that it increases the supply of amino acids in the small intestine of ruminants [52]. Studies report that the OM content of pelagic sargassum represents between 30 and 50% of DM [20,21]; this value is lower than that reported in the present study (58.89%) and probably could influence DOM (Table 1). Other limiting factors for the inclusion of sargassum in diets for ruminants are its concentration of heavy metals such as As, which, according to reports, can contain from 100 to 500 mg kg−1 DM [23,25]. Although the concentration of secondary metabolites was not determined in pelagic sargassum in this study, research on the bioactive compound content in algae of the genus Sargassum indicates that they have a strong influence on DDM and DOM [25,53,54,55,56]. The complex polysaccharides contained in brown algae may initially limit the availability of nutrients to rumen microorganisms, requiring the establishment of a new microbial consortium or the adaptation of an existing one to produce specific enzymes that can efficiently degrade these polysaccharides [57]. According to Saldarriaga-Hernandez et al. [53], the collection season influences the composition of carbohydrates, proteins, and phenolic compounds of Sargassum. For this reason, it is necessary to conduct studies on the speciation of As, as well as the determination of the concentration of bioactive compounds of pelagic sargassum according to the time of the year.

4.2. Protozoa Population

Rumen protozoa contribute approximately 30% of methane emissions through their symbiotic relationship with methanogens, which involves the transfer of hydrogen between them [58]. In the present study, the total protozoa population decreased at 24 h (Table 3). These results are partially consistent with Canul-Ku et al. [25], who observed a decrease in the total protozoa concentration and in population of Entodiniomorphs at 48 y 72 h of incubation; this contrast is probably due to the difference in the quality of the basal diet used and the type of diet provided to the rumen fluid donor animals; however, in the two studies the degradability of DM and OM were not negatively affected. Therefore, the reduction in protozoa population by the effect of brown algae supplied in ruminants is associated with a decrease in methanogen populations [22] and, therefore, it is related to a lower CH4 production [14,59].
Bioactive compounds contained in macroalgae have antimicrobial properties [15,60,61,62], modify the abundances of cellulolytic bacteria, methanogenic archaea, and methanogens associated with ciliate protozoa in the rumen [18]. Red algae such as Asparagopsis taxiformis are characterized by high concentrations of bromoform, a halogenated compound that acts by inhibiting cobamide-dependent methyltransferase in the terminal stage of the methanogenic pathway [13,63,64], while brown algae contain phlorotannins, compounds that favor the increase in fibrolytic populations [18,19,50]. The antibacterial mechanism of action of these phenolic compounds is related to their ability to modify cell wall permeability and inhibit bacterial cell replication [65].
The inclusion of the red seaweed Eucheuma cottonii in high-fiber diets resulted in a linear reduction in the protozoa population and CH4 concentration in the ruminal fluid as the dose increased [46]. Similar results were reported by Roque et al. [21], who indicated reductions in the abundance of methanogens in the rumen fluid accompanied by a CH4 reduction of 95% with the addition of 5% Asparagopsis taxiformis to a good-quality substrate. Contrary to these studies, Molina-Alcaide et al. [42], when evaluating several species of red algae (Mastocarpus stellatus, Palmaria palmata, and Porphyra sp.), reported no effects on the microbial population. The differences in the effects observed in studies with red algae are related to the concentration of bromoform, which varies depending on the species of algae and the season of collection [66,67]. With brown algae, differential effects have also been observed in their antimicrobial properties [12,19]. These differential effects are due to differences in the concentration [22], chemical structure, and molecular weight of phlorotannins in brown algae, which could determine the potency of their effect [68,69]. In this same context, the characterization of the polysaccharides present in pelagic sargassum based on their bioactive properties in ruminants would be another topic of great interest since it has been little studied. According to Cheong et al. [69], polysaccharides such as alginate, laminarin, and fucoidan promote the growth of bacteria associated with CH4 reduction and the suppression of methanogenic archaeal populations. In this regard, the addition of brown algae extracts to a substrate with 60% grass hay and 40% corn grain increases the abundance of cellulolytic bacteria [18]. The antimicrobial property of polysaccharides is related to the presence of sulfate groups or uronic acid [70]. The mechanism of action of these polysaccharides is related to their ability to disrupt microbial cell walls and membranes, causing cell lysis [69,71,72]. Based on our findings and supported by studies conducted with brown algae in ruminants, we can confirm that our hypothesis was proven correct.

5. Conclusions

Pelagic sargassum can be a potential ingredient in ruminant feed due to its bioactive compounds. The results of the study indicate that pelagic sargassum can be included up to 30% under in vitro conditions in integrals diets, improving fermentative parameters. It is recommended to determine the chemical composition and the concentration of secondary metabolites of sargassum according to the time of the year, and to carry out animal feeding studies to determine its possible effects on the rumen microbiome and productive parameters.

Author Contributions

L.A.C.-K.: Conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing. F.C.-L.: Conceptualization, methodology. E.A.-U., B.D.-C., D.A.-Á.: Conceptualization. J.C.-S., L.C.-S., A.C.-C.: Conceptualization, methodology. A.P.-V., D.A.-Á.: Conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis. I.V.-P., B.D.-C., L.C.-S.: Conceptualization, writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of Technological Institute of Conkal (protocol code 15135; Approval date: 13 April 2023) for studies involving animals.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the Doctoral program in Sustainable Tropical Agricultural Sciences of the Division of Postgraduate Studies and Research of the Conkal Campus of the National Technological Institute of Mexico, and Mexico’s National Council of Humanities, Science, and Technology (Conahcyt) for the scholarship provided.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Evans, F.D.; Critchley, A.T. Seaweeds for animal production use. J. Appl. Phycol. 2014, 26, 891–899. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Costa, M.; Cardoso, C.; Afonso, C.; Bandarra, N.M.; Prates, J.A.M. Current knowledge and future perspectives of the use of seaweeds for livestock production and meat quality: A systematic review. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2021, 105, 1075–1102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Bikker, P.; van Krimpen, M.M.; van Wikselaar, P.; Houweling-Tan, B.; Scaccia, N.; van Hal, J.W.; Huijgen, W.J.J.; Cone, J.W.; López-Contreras, A.M. Biorefinery of the green seaweed Ulva lactuca to produce animal feed, chemicals and biofuels. J. Appl. Phycol. 2016, 28, 3511–3525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. García-Sánchez, M.; Graham, C.; Vera, E.; Escalante-Mancera, E.; Álvarez-Filip, L.; van Tussenbroek, B.I. Temporal changes in the composition and biomass of beached pelagic Sargassum species in the Mexican Caribbean. Aquatic Botany 2020, 167, 103275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Espinosa, L.A.; Li Ng, J.J. The risk of Sargassum to the economy and tourism of Quintana Roo and Mexico. BBVA Res. 2020, 20, 1–35. [Google Scholar]
  6. Lapointe, B.E.; Burkholder, J.M.; Van Alstyne, K.L. Harmful Macroalgal Blooms in a Changing World: Causes, Impacts, and Management. Harmful Algal Bloom. 2018, 515–560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Resiere, D.; Mehdaoui, H.; Florentin, J.; Gueye, P.; Lebrun, T.; Blateau, A.; Viguier, J.; Valentino, R.; Brouste, Y.; Kallel, H.; et al. Sargassum seaweed health menace in the Caribbean: Clinical characteristics of a population exposed to hydrogen sulfide during the 2018 massive stranding. Clin. Toxicol. 2020, 59, 215–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Chávez, V.; Uribe-Martínez, A.; Cuevas, E.; Rodríguez-Martínez, R.E.; van Tussenbroek, B.I.; Francisco, V.; Estévez, M.; Celis, L.B.; Monroy-Velázquez, L.V.; Leal-Bautista, R.; et al. Massive influx of pelagic Sargassum spp. on the coasts of the Mexican Caribbean 2014–2020: Challenges and opportunities. Water 2020, 12, 2908. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Liranzo-Gómez, R.E.; García-Cortés, D.; Jáuregui-Haza, U. Adaptation and Sustainable Management of Massive Influx of Sargassum in the Caribbean. Procedia Environ. Sci. Eng. Manag. 2021, 8, 543–553. [Google Scholar]
  10. Rodríguez-Martínez, R.E.; Torres-Conde, E.G.; Jordán-Dahlgren, E. Pelagic Sargassum cleanup cost in Mexico. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2023, 237, 106542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Cabrita, A.R.J.; Maia, M.R.G.; Oliveira, H.M.; Sousa-Pinto, I.; Almeida, A.A.; Pinto, E.; Fonseca, A.J.M. Tracing seaweeds as mineral sources for farm-animals. J. Appl. Phycol. 2016, 28, 3135–3150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Belanche, A.; Ramos-Morales, E.; Newbold, C.J. In vitro screening of natural feed additives from crustaceans, diatoms, seaweeds and plant extracts to manipulate rumen fermentation. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2016, 96, 3069–3078. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Machado, L.; Tomkins, N.; Magnusson, M.; Midgley, D.J.; de Nys, R.; Rosewarne, C.P. In Vitro Response of Rumen Microbiota to the Antimethanogenic Red Macroalga Asparagopsis taxiformis. Microb. Ecol. 2018, 75, 811–818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Choi, Y.Y.; Lee, S.J.; Lee, Y.J.; Kim, H.S.; Eom, J.S.; Kim, S.C.; Kim, E.T.; Lee, S.S. New challenges for efficient usage of Sargassum fusiforme for ruminant production. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 19655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Shrestha, S.; Zhang, W.; Smid, S.D. Phlorotannins: A review on biosynthesis, chemistry and bioactivity. Food Biosci. 2021, 39, 100832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Machado, L.; Magnusson, M.; Paul, N.A.; Kinley, R.; de Nys, R.; Tomkins, N. Dose-response effects of Asparagopsis taxiformis and Oedogonium sp. on in vitro fermentation and methane production. J. Appl. Phycol. 2015, 28, 1443–1452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Vijay, K.; Balasundari, S.; Jeyashakila, R.; Velayathum, P.; Masilan, K. Proximate and mineral composition of brown seaweed from Gulf of Mannar. Int. J. Fish. Aquat. Stud. 2017, 5, 106–112. [Google Scholar]
  18. Choi, Y.Y.; Shin, N.H.; Lee, S.J.; Lee, Y.J.; Kim, H.S.; Eom, J.S.; Lee, S.S.; Kim, E.T.; Lee, S.S. In vitro five brown algae extracts for efficiency of ruminal fermentation and methane yield. J. Appl. Phycol. 2021, 33, 1253–1262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Choi, Y.; Lee, S.J.; Kim, H.S.; Eom, J.S.; Jo, S.U.; Guan, L.L.; Seo, J.; Kim, H.; Lee, S.S.; Lee, S.S. Effects of seaweed extracts on in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics, methane production, and microbial abundance. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 24092. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Maia, M.R.G.; Fonseca, A.J.M.; Cortez, P.P.; Cabrita, A.R.J. In vitro evaluation of macroalgae as unconventional ingredients in ruminant animal feeds. Algal Res. 2019, 40, 101481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Roque, B.M.; Brooke, C.G.; Ladau, J.; Polley, T.; Marsh, L.J.; Najafi, N.; Pandey, P.; Singh, L.; Kinley, R.; Salwen, J.K.; et al. Effect of the macroalgae Asparagopsis taxiformis on methane production and rumen microbiome assemblage. Anim. Microbiome 2019, 1, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Belanche, A.; Jones, E.; Parveen, I.; Newbold, C.J. A metagenomics approach to evaluate the impact of dietary supplementation with Ascophyllum nodosum or Laminaria digitata on rumen function in Rusitec fermenters. Front. Microbiol. 2016, 7, 299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Milledge, J.J.; Maneein, S.; López, E.A.; Bartlett, D. Sargassum inundations in Turks and Caicos: Methane potential and proximate, ultimate, lipid, amino acid, metal and metalloid analyses. Energies 2020, 13, 1523. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Davis, D.; Simister, R.; Campbell, S.; Marston, M.; Bose, S.; McQueen-Mason, S.J.; Gomez, L.D.; Gallimore, W.A.; Tonon, T. Biomass composition of the golden tide pelagic seaweeds Sargassum fluitans and S. natans (morphotypes I and VIII) to inform valorisation pathways. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 762, 143134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Canul-Ku, L.A.; Sanginés-García, J.R.; Urquizo, E.A.; Canul-Solís, J.R.; Valdivieso-Pérez, I.A.; Vargas-Bello-Pérez, E.; Molina-Botero, I.; Arango, J.; Piñeiro-Vázquez, Á.T. Effect of Pelagic Sargassum on In Vitro Dry Matter and Organic Matter Degradation, Gas Production, and Protozoa Population. Animals 2023, 13, 1858. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Wang, L.; Cui, Y.R.; Oh, S.; Paik, M.J.; Je, J.G.; Heo, J.H.; Lee, T.K.; Fu, X.; Xu, J.; Gao, X.; et al. Arsenic removal from the popular edible seaweed Sargassum fusiforme by sequential processing involving hot water, citric acid, and fermentation. Chemosphere 2022, 292, 133409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Rjiba-Ktita, S.; Chermiti, A.; Bodas, R.; France, J.; López, S. Aquatic plants and macroalgae as potential feed ingredients in ruminant diets. J. Appl. Phycol. 2017, 29, 449–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. INEGI (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía). Standard for Quality Assurance of Statistical and Geographic Information of the National Institute of Statistics and Geography; INEGI: Aguascalientes, Mexico, 2014. [Google Scholar]
  29. García, E. Modifications to the Köppen Climate Classification System, 5th ed.; Autonomous University of Mexico: Mexico City, Mexico, 2004. [Google Scholar]
  30. NOM-062-Z00 1999; Technical Specifications for the Production, Care, and Use of Laboratory Animals. Norma Oficial Mexicana: Mexico City, Mexico, 2001.
  31. NRC. Nutrient Requirements of Small ruminants: Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2007.
  32. Ramos-Morales, E.; Arco-Pérez, A.; Martín-García, A.I.; Yáñez-Ruiz, D.R.; Frutos, P.; Hervás, G. Use of stomach tubing as an alternative to rumen cannulation to study ruminal fermentation and microbiota in sheep and goats. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2014, 198, 57–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Menke, K.H.; Steingass, H. Estimation of the energetic feed value obtained from chemical analysis and in vitro gas production using rumen fluid. Anim. Res. Dev. 1988, 28, 7–55. [Google Scholar]
  34. Theodorou, M.K.; Williams, B.A.; Dhanoa, M.S.; McAllan, A.B.; France, J. A simple gas production method using a pressure transducer to determine the fermentation kinetics of ruminant feeds. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 1994, 48, 185–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Beuvink, J.M.; Kogut, J. Modeling gas production kinetics of grass silages incubated with buffered ruminal fluid. J. Anim. Sci. 1993, 71, 1041–1046. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Machado, L.; Magnusson, M.; Paul, N.A.; De Nys, R.; Tomkins, N. Effects of marine and freshwater macroalgae on in vitro total gas and methane production. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e85289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Ogimoto, K.; Imai, S. Atlas of Rumen Microbiology; Japan Scientific Societies: Tokyo, Japan, 1981. [Google Scholar]
  38. AOAC. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 15th ed.; AOAC: Arlington, VA, USA, 1990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Van Soest, P.J.; Robertson, J.B.; Lewis, B.A. Methods for Dietary Fiber, Neutral Detergent Fiber, and Nonstarch Polysaccharides in Relation to Animal Nutrition. J. Dairy Sci. 1991, 74, 3583–3597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. SAS. Statistical Analysis Systems (SAS OnLine Doc. Version 8); Statistical Analysis Systems Institute: Cary, NC, USA, 1999. [Google Scholar]
  41. Munde, V.K.; Das, A.; Singh, P.; Verma, A.K.; Muwel, N.; Mishra, A.; Deb, R.; Raje, K. Influence of Kappaphycus Alvarezii and Gracilaria Salicornia Supplementation on in Vitro Fermentation Pattern, Total Gas and Methane Production of Mixed Substrates. Res. Sq. 2021, 1, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Molina-Alcaide, E.; Carro, M.D.; Roleda, M.Y.; Weisbjerg, M.R.; Lind, V.; Novoa-Garrido, M. In vitro ruminal fermentation and methane production of different seaweed species. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2017, 228, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. de la Moneda, A.; Carro, M.D.; Weisbjerg, M.R.; Roleda, M.Y.; Lind, V.; Novoa-Garrido, M.; Molina-Alcaide, E. Variability and potential of seaweeds as ingredients of ruminant diets: An in vitro study. Animals 2019, 9, 851. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Zheng, Y.; Xue, S.; Zhao, Y.; Li, S. Effect of cassava residue substituting for crushed maize on in vitro ruminal fermentation characteristics of dairy cows at mid-lactation. Animals 2020, 10, 893. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Choi, Y.Y.; Lee, S.J.; Lee, Y.J.; Kim, H.S.; Eom, J.S.; Jo, S.U.; Lee, S.S. In vitro and in situ evaluation of Undaria pinnatifida as a feed ingredient for ruminants. J. Appl. Phycol. 2019, 32, 729–739. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Choi, Y.Y.; Lee, S.J.; Kim, H.S.; Eom, J.S.; Kim, D.H.; Lee, S.S. The potential nutritive value of Sargassum fulvellum as a feed ingredient for ruminants. Algal Res. 2020, 45, 101761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Widiawati, Y.; Hikmawan, D. Enteric methane mitigation by using seaweed Eucheuma cottonii. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2021, 788, 012152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Maia, M.R.G.; Fonseca, A.J.M.; Oliveira, H.M.; Mendonça, C.; Cabrita, A.R.J. The potential role of seaweeds in the natural manipulation of rumen fermentation and methane production. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 32321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Özkan Gülzari, S.; Lind, V.; Aasen, I.M.; Steinshamn, H. Effect of supplementing sheep diets with macroalgae species on in vivo nutrient digestibility, rumen fermentation and blood amino acid profile. Animal 2019, 13, 2792–2801. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Huang, Q.; Chen, Y.; Wang, X.; Wei, Y.; Pan, M.; Zhao, G. Effects of Phlorotannins from Sargassum on In Vitro Rumen Fermentation, Microbiota and Fatty Acid Profile. Animals 2023, 13, 2854. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Park, K.Y.; Jo, Y.H.; Ghassemi Nejad, J.; Lee, J.C.; Lee, H.G. Evaluation of nutritional value of Ulva sp. and Sargassum horneri as potential eco-friendly ruminant feed. Algal Res. 2022, 65, 102706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Gaillard, C.; Bhatti, H.S.; Novoa-Garrido, M.; Lind, V.; Roleda, M.Y.; Weisbjerg, M.R. Amino acid profiles of nine seaweed species and their in situ degradability in dairy cows. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2018, 241, 210–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Saldarriaga-Hernandez, S.; Melchor-Martínez, E.M.; Carrillo-Nieves, D.; Parra-Saldívar, R.; Iqbal, H.M.N. Seasonal characterization and quantification of biomolecules from sargassum collected from Mexican Caribbean coast—A preliminary study as a step forward to blue economy. J. Environ. Manag. 2021, 298, 113507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Liu, L.; Heinrich, M.; Myers, S.; Dworjanyn, S.A. Towards a better understanding of medicinal uses of the brown seaweed Sargassum in Traditional Chinese Medicine: A phytochemical and pharmacological review. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2012, 142, 591–619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Carrillo-Domínguez, S.; Rodríguez-Martínez, R.E.; Díaz-Martínez, M.; Magaña-Gallegos, E.; Cuchillo-Hilario, M. Potential application of pelagic Sargassum spp. in animal feeding. J. Appl. Phycol. 2023, 35, 433–444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Vázquez-Delfín, E.; Freile-Pelegrín, Y.; Salazar-Garibay, A.; Serviere-Zaragoza, E.; Méndez-Rodríguez, L.C.; Robledo, D. Species composition and chemical characterization of Sargassum influx at six different locations along the Mexican Caribbean coast. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 795, 148852. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Williams, A.G.; Withers, S.; Sutherland, A.D. The potential of bacteria isolated from ruminal contents of seaweed-eating North Ronaldsay sheep to hydrolyse seaweed components and produce methane by anaerobic digestion in vitro. Microb. Biotechnol. 2013, 6, 45–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Dai, X.; Kalscheur, K.F.; Huhtanen, P.; Faciola, A.P. Efectos de los protozoos ruminales en las emisiones de metano en rumiantes: Un metanálisis. Rev. Cienc. Láct. 2022, 105, 7482–7491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Prayitno, C.H.; Hidayat, N. In Vitro Rumen Methanogenesis Inhibition Ability Of Brown Seaweed From Nusakambangan Coast, Cilacap, Indonesia. NVEO-Nat. Volatiles Essent. Oils J. 2021, 8, 2081–2089. [Google Scholar]
  60. Ford, L.; Stratakos, A.C.; Theodoridou, K.; Dick, J.T.A.; Sheldrake, G.N.; Linton, M.; Corcionivoschi, N.; Walsh, P.J. Polyphenols from Brown Seaweeds as a Potential Antimicrobial Agent in Animal Feeds. ACS Omega 2020, 5, 9093–9103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Abbott, D.W.; Aasen, I.M.; Beauchemin, K.A.; Grondahl, F.; Gruninger, R.; Hayes, M.; Huws, S.; Kenny, D.A.; Krizsan, S.J.; Kirwan, S.F.; et al. Seaweed and seaweed bioactives for mitigation of enteric methane: Challenges and opportunities. Animals 2020, 10, 2432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  62. Antaya, N.T.; Ghelichkhan, M.; Pereira, A.B.D.; Soder, K.J.; Brito, A.F. Production, milk iodine, and nutrient utilization in Jersey cows supplemented with the brown seaweed Ascophyllum nodosum (kelp meal) during the grazing season. J. Dairy Sci. 2019, 102, 8040–8058. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Kinley, R.D.; Martinez-Fernandez, G.; Matthews, M.K.; de Nys, R.; Magnusson, M.; Tomkins, N.W. Mitigating the carbon footprint and improving productivity of ruminant livestock agriculture using a red seaweed. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 259, 120836. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Roque, B.M.; Venegas, M.; Kinley, R.D.; De Nys, R.; Duarte, T.L.; Yang, X.; Kebreab, E. Red seaweed (Asparagopsis taxiformis) supplementation reduces enteric methane by over 80 percent in beef steers. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0247820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Pradhan, B.; Nayak, R.; Bhuyan, P.P.; Patra, S.; Behera, C.; Sahoo, S.; Ki, J.S.; Quarta, A.; Ragusa, A.; Jena, M. Algal phlorotannins as novel antibacterial agents with reference to the antioxidant modulation: Current advances and future directions. Mar. Drugs 2022, 20, 403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Bolkenov, B.; Duarte, T.; Yang, L.; Yang, F.; Roque, B.; Kebreab, E.; Yang, X. Effects of red macroalgae Asparagopsis taxiformis supplementation on the shelf life of fresh whole muscle beef. Transl. Anim. Sci. 2021, 5, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Brooke, C.G.; Roque, B.M.; Shaw, C.; Najafi, N.; Gonzalez, M.; Pfefferlen, A.; De Anda, V.; Ginsburg, D.W.; Harden, M.C.; Nuzhdin, S.V.; et al. Methane Reduction Potential of Two Pacific Coast Macroalgae During in vitro Ruminant Fermentation. Front. Mar. Sci. 2020, 7, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Demarco, M.; Oliveira de Moraes, J.; Matos, Â.P.; Derner, R.B.; de Farias Neves, F.; Tribuzi, G. Digestibility, bioaccessibility and bioactivity of compounds from algae. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2022, 121, 114–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Cheong, K.L.; Zhang, Y.; Li, Z.; Li, T.; Ou, Y.; Shen, J.; Zhong, S.; Tan, K. Role of Polysaccharides from Marine Seaweed as Feed Additives for Methane Mitigation in Ruminants: A Critical Review. Polymers 2023, 15, 3153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  70. Tran, T.T.; Van Truong, H.B.; Tran, N.H.V.; Quach, T.M.T.; Nguyen, T.N.; Bui, M.L.; Yuguchi, Y.; Thanh, T.T.T. Structure, conformation in aqueous solution and antimicrobial activity of ulvan extracted from green seaweed Ulva reticulata. Nat. Prod. Res. 2018, 32, 2291–2296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  71. Souza, R.B.; Frota, A.F.; Silva, J.; Alves, C.; Neugebauer, A.Z.; Pinteus, S.; Rodrigues, J.A.G.; Cordeiro, E.M.S.; de Almeida, R.R.; Pedrosa, R.; et al. In vitro activities of kappa-carrageenan isolated from red marine alga Hypnea musciformis: Antimicrobial, anticancer and neuroprotective potential. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2018, 112, 1248–1256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Liu, Y.; Ma, Y.; Chen, Z.; Li, D.; Liu, W.; Huang, L.; Zou, C.; Cao, M.J.; Liu, G.M.; Wang, Y. Antibacterial activity of sulfated galactans from Eucheuma serra and Gracilari verrucosa against diarrheagenic Escherichia coli via the disruption of the cell membrane structure. Mar. Drugs 2020, 18, 397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Fermentation 11 00390 g001
Figure 1. Effect of dosage of sargassum on in vitro gas production (IVGP) during 72 h of incubation. TGP: total gas production; ICD: integral diet control; ID10: integral diet with 10% sargassum; ID20: integral diet with 20% sargassum; ID30: integral diet with 30% sargassum.
Figure 1. Effect of dosage of sargassum on in vitro gas production (IVGP) during 72 h of incubation. TGP: total gas production; ICD: integral diet control; ID10: integral diet with 10% sargassum; ID20: integral diet with 20% sargassum; ID30: integral diet with 30% sargassum.
Fermentation 11 00390 g001
Table 1. Ingredients and chemical composition of the dietary treatments.
Table 1. Ingredients and chemical composition of the dietary treatments.
ComponentsSargassumTreatments (Inclusion Level of Sargassum)
ICDID10ID20ID30SEMp Value
Ingredients and levels of inclusion (%)
CT-115 grass 64.247.9531.715.46
Corn 22.2726.6731.0735.47
Soybean 3.545.387.239.07
Molasses 10101010
Sargassum 0102030
Chemical composition (%)
DM94.1194.05 a93.52 a92.62 a91.42 a0.4400.0834
OM58.8990.09 d88.48 c86.62 b83.93 a0.1700.0005
CP6.7312.00 a11.99 a12.05 a12.00 a0.0700.7134
aNDF45.0452.04 c42.97 b37.06 a32.35 a0.8400.0016
ADF30.9331.94 c26.19 b23.03 b19.02 a0.5100.0013
Lignina (sa)5.322.06 a2.24 a2.47 a2.49 a0.3000.8144
Different letters in the same row indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). SEM: standard error of the means; n = 3. Treatments: ICD = Control (integral diet); ID10 (integral diet with 10% sargassum); ID20 (integral diet with 20% sargassum); ID30 (integral diet with 30% sargassum); DM: dry matter; OM: organic matter; CP: crude protein; aNDF: neutral detergent fiber assayed with a heat stable amylase and expressed inclusive of residual ash; ADF: acid detergent fiber expressed inclusive of residual ash; lignin (sa): determined by solubilization of cellulose with sulphuric acid.
Table 2. Effect of Sargassum inclusion level on in vitro total gas production, dry matter degradability, and organic matter degradability.
Table 2. Effect of Sargassum inclusion level on in vitro total gas production, dry matter degradability, and organic matter degradability.
Time (h)Treatments (Inclusion Level of Sargassum)SEMp Value
ICDID10ID20ID30
Total gas production (mL g−1 DM)
24255.27 c278.19 b288.81 b311.10 a4.844˂0.0001
48342.00 b345.21 b375.96 a389.92 a6.3820.0004
72416.33 c428.83 bc453.62 b493.42 a5.985˂0.0001
DM degradability (g kg−1)
0375.68 b385.96 b471.29 a484.26 a6.282<0.0001
24493.39 c519.75 b544.44 b592.57 a6.066<0.0001
48509.07 c559.83 b587.54 ab613.92 a7.544<0.0001
72523.34 c571.97 b594.25 b636.23 a7.484<0.0001
OM degradability (g kg−1)
0349.29 b344.90 b428.17 a425.86 a6.074<0.0001
24468.04 c492.43 bc511.82 b553.68 a6.419<0.0001
48486.77 c536.07 b556.98 ab581.03 a8.390<0.0001
72505.55 c551.96 b568.30 b604.97 a7.659<0.0001
Different letters in the same row indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). SEM: standard error of the means; n = 4. Treatments: ICD = Control (integral diet); ID10 (integral diet with 10% sargassum); ID20 (integral diet with 20% sargassum); ID30 (integral diet with 30% sargassum).
Table 3. Effect of sargassum inclusion level on pH and total concentration of protozoa in rumen fluid.
Table 3. Effect of sargassum inclusion level on pH and total concentration of protozoa in rumen fluid.
Time (h)Treatments (Inclusion Level of Sargassum)SEMp Value
ICDID10ID20ID30
pH
246.836.886.936.930.0270.0532
486.83 a6.89 a6.82 a6.69 b0.0260.0010
726.776.836.876.800.0330.2142
Total protozoa (×105 cel/mL) log10
247.32 a7.03 ab6.99 ab6.75 b0.1090.0247
486.716.596.836.640.1200.5401
726.396.246.035.990.1350.1789
Total Entodinium (×105 cel/mL) log10
244.234.144.023.930.0760.0834
483.743.693.813.700.0860.7334
723.573.423.213.090.1440.1462
Total Holotrichs (×105 cel/mL) log10
243.092.892.972.820.0760.1289
482.972.893.012.940.1020.8630
722.822.822.822.890.0370.4262
Different letters in the same row indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). SEM: standard error of the means; n = 4. Treatments: ICD = Control (integral diet); ID10 (integral diet with 10% sargassum); ID20 (integral diet with 20% sargassum); ID30 (integral diet with 30% sargassum).
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Canul-Ku, L.A.; Casanova-Lugo, F.; Aguilar-Urquizo, E.; Valdivieso-Pérez, I.; Arcos-Álvarez, D.; Canul-Solís, J.; Castillo-Sánchez, L.; Chay-Canul, A.; Dzib-Castillo, B.; Piñeiro-Vázquez, A. In Vitro Fermentation Characteristics of Pelagic Sargassum for Inclusion in Integral Diets for Ruminants. Fermentation 2025, 11, 390. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation11070390

AMA Style

Canul-Ku LA, Casanova-Lugo F, Aguilar-Urquizo E, Valdivieso-Pérez I, Arcos-Álvarez D, Canul-Solís J, Castillo-Sánchez L, Chay-Canul A, Dzib-Castillo B, Piñeiro-Vázquez A. In Vitro Fermentation Characteristics of Pelagic Sargassum for Inclusion in Integral Diets for Ruminants. Fermentation. 2025; 11(7):390. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation11070390

Chicago/Turabian Style

Canul-Ku, Luis Alberto, Fernando Casanova-Lugo, Edgar Aguilar-Urquizo, Ingrid Valdivieso-Pérez, Darwin Arcos-Álvarez, Jorge Canul-Solís, Luis Castillo-Sánchez, Alfonso Chay-Canul, Benito Dzib-Castillo, and Angel Piñeiro-Vázquez. 2025. "In Vitro Fermentation Characteristics of Pelagic Sargassum for Inclusion in Integral Diets for Ruminants" Fermentation 11, no. 7: 390. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation11070390

APA Style

Canul-Ku, L. A., Casanova-Lugo, F., Aguilar-Urquizo, E., Valdivieso-Pérez, I., Arcos-Álvarez, D., Canul-Solís, J., Castillo-Sánchez, L., Chay-Canul, A., Dzib-Castillo, B., & Piñeiro-Vázquez, A. (2025). In Vitro Fermentation Characteristics of Pelagic Sargassum for Inclusion in Integral Diets for Ruminants. Fermentation, 11(7), 390. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation11070390

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop