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Communication

Preliminary Assessment of Physicochemical and Microbial Stability in CBD-Infused Water Beverages

by
Harry Chiririwa
Department of Natural Sciences, Vaal University of Technology, Andries Potgieter Blvd., Vanderbijlpark 1900, South Africa
Beverages 2026, 12(7), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages12070083
Submission received: 29 April 2026 / Revised: 26 June 2026 / Accepted: 6 July 2026 / Published: 22 July 2026
(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Analysis of Food and Beverages, 2nd Edition)
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Abstract

Cannabidiol (CBD)-infused bottled water has recently become one of the new types of functional beverages in the expanding cannabinoid and nutraceutical market. This paper presents preliminary experimental observations combined with a literature-based analysis to investigate quality and stability parameters of CBD-infused bottled water. Physicochemical characterization, microbial quality analysis and stability monitoring of CBD under storage conditions were included in the experimental work. The results indicated that the formulation maintained the properties of its initial dispersion during the first period of storage. An increase in transparency and a decrease in CBD concentration were noted. Microbial counts increased during storage, suggesting that microbiological stability is limited by time under the tested conditions. Reviewing the literature underlines the significance of cannabinoid stability in aqueous beverages aided by nanoemulsion delivery systems, packaging materials and controlled storage environments. The results show that CBD can be infused into bottled water but challenges regarding formulation and storage exist. The research was not conducted to address long shelf-life, commercial scalability or compliance with regulations but to provide primary information on quality and stability factors influencing CBD beverages. More research using standardized procedures is required to understand safety, efficacy and stability over time.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

1.1. Background on Functional Beverages and CBD Use

Non-alcoholic beverages that are specifically designed to provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition are known as functional beverages [1]. Bioactive substances such as vitamins, minerals, probiotics, or plant extracts are added to them [2]. The main reason these products have gained popularity is that more people are interested in natural cures, well-being, and preventive healthcare. Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive substance extracted from the hemp plant (Cannabis sativa), is one of the bioactive compounds that has garnered the most attention recently because of its therapeutic potential, including its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anxiolytic properties [3,4]. Functional drinks would be more accessible, convenient, and consumer-friendly if CBD was added [5]. Achieving a consistent dispersion of the lipophilic molecule, preserving chemical stability, and guaranteeing microbiological safety over a predetermined shelf life are all challenges in the development of CBD-infused water [6]. The lack of scientific literature on quality, safety, and chemical profiling highlights the need for research to enable safe commercialization in accordance with regulations, despite the fact that many businesses are interested in CBD beverages [7].
The creation of stable CBD-infused water beverages continues to be a major technological problem, despite the market for cannabinoid beverages expanding quickly [5]. Due to its high lipophilicity and poor water solubility, cannabidiol must be sufficiently dispersed throughout beverage matrices using emulsification technologies, surfactants, or nano-delivery methods [8]. Emulsion breakdown, cannabis degradation, oxidative reactions, interactions with packing materials, and environmental factors, including temperature, light exposure, and pH, can all cause physicochemical instability in integrated CBD-containing beverages [9].
Few studies have looked at the physicochemical and microbiological quality features in CBD-infused water beverages under storage settings relevant to commercial products, despite the fact that previous studies have investigated CBD degradation and stability in aqueous formulations [10]. With the primary goal of generating useful data to validate formulation optimization, shelf-life evaluation, and future product development within this rapidly developing cannabinoid beverage industry, this communication offers an initial assessment of physicochemical and microbial stability in CBD-infused water beverages.

1.2. Significance of CBD-Infused Water for Health and Wellness

CBD-infused water is a novel technique to provide people with the possible health advantages of cannabidiol in an easy-to-use manner [11]. CBD is a non-psychoactive drug with health benefits, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anxiety-reducing qualities that, when used consistently, may enhance well-being [12]. In comparison to some other routes of ingestion, mixing water with CBD offers a convenient mode of consumption, rapid hydration, and higher absorption in the body. For those who wish to use nature as a source of assistance for stress management, healing, and living well without the euphoric effects of THC, functional beverages containing cannabidiol (CBD) provide a simple solution [13]. Additionally, the market’s need for novel, secure, and scientifically validated functional beverages may be satisfied by CBD-infused water as consumers grow more conscious of health and preventative medicine. To boost consumer trust and encourage the development of efficient, health-conscious beverage items, it is critical to comprehend its quality, stability, and safety.

1.3. Knowledge Gap: Limited Data on Microbial Safety, Chemical Stability and Production Methods

The use of cannabidiol (CBD) in drinks has gained popularity [14]. Nonetheless, there is still a dearth of scientific data about the chemical stability, microbiological safety, and standardized manufacturing techniques of these drinks [15]. The majority of the medicinal effects of cannabis are attributed to its principal ingredient, CBD [16]. It is particularly difficult to add CBD to liquid food systems, including bottled water, due to its limited water solubility. Degradation of CBD and the possibility of microbial contamination during processing and storage may result from this. Effective strategies for maintaining product quality, ensuring consistent CBD distribution, and adhering to regulations are not well covered in the current literature [17]. A thorough evaluation of how process, storage, and formulation factors impact CBD stability and the products’ overall microbiological safety is also lacking. Manufacturers are unable to produce reliable, secure, and superior CBD beverages due to the scarcity of such information [18]. In order to enable the safe commercialization and consumer use of these goods, a compelling argument is presented here for additional research that combines production techniques with chemical and microbiological quality evaluations.

1.4. Study Objectives and Novelty

This article’s primary goal is to examine the chemical makeup, microbiological safety, and quality of CBD-infused bottled water in a controlled bottling environment. Determining the cannabidiol concentration, detecting possible degradation products, and testing physicochemical qualities while maintaining microbiological stability during storage are the main goals of the study. This study is distinctive because it employs an integrated approach that standardizes CBD integration processes and combines them with chemical and microbiological investigations to methodically assess product stability, safety, and consistency. By addressing current knowledge gaps, this article provides useful methods for producing CBD-infused beverages that are both safe and of excellent quality. It provides a framework for scientists interested in the commercial development and regulatory compliance of functional cannabinoid-based drinks, as well as for beverage makers and food safety regulators.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design and Scope

This study is intended to be a hybrid communication that incorporates supporting literature-based analysis with initial experimental observations. Physicochemical, microbiological, and stability evaluations of CBD-infused bottled water under regulated storage settings are included in the experimental section. From published studies, comparative and contextual discussions on formulation techniques, cannabis chemistry, and regulatory frameworks were derived.

2.2. Materials

Analytical-grade cannabidiol (CBD) was used to synthesize CBD-infused water. Purified distilled water was used for the aqueous phase. A food-grade carrier system, such as an emulsifier or a solubilizing agent suitable for dispersing cannabinoids in aqueous media, was used to enhance the loading and stability of CBD. Physicochemical and microbial analysis reagents were all analytical grade.

2.3. Preparation of CBD-Infused Water Formulation

The CBD-infused water beverage was prepared using distilled water as the continuous phase. Cannabidiol (CBD) was incorporated into the aqueous phase using polysorbate 80 as a non-ionic emulsifier at a concentration of 1.0% (w/v). The formulation consisted of 50 mg/L CBD, 1.0% (w/v) polysorbate 80 and purified water as the carrier medium.
The CBD concentration of 50 mg/L was selected based on a combination of literature-reported ranges for CBD-enriched beverage formulations and preliminary formulation trials conducted to ensure emulsion stability and analytical detectability. Given the hydrophobic nature of CBD and its low solubility in aqueous systems, concentrations in this range are frequently used in carrier-assisted delivery systems to balance physicochemical stability with measurable analytical response during storage studies [19].
Distilled water was used in this study as a simplified model system to minimize variability arising from dissolved minerals, organic matter and background microbial populations that influence microbial growth dynamics and physicochemical stability. This approach allowed for clearer assessment of microbial changes and CBD stability under a set of laboratory conditions. It is, however, recognized that distilled water does not represent typical commercial beverage matrices. For functional beverage development, drinking water comprising a naturally occurring mineral composition should be used and proper microbiological quality control of the base water must be performed before formulation.
The mixture was initially pre-mixed using a magnetic stirrer at 800 rpm for 15 min at room temperature (25 ± 2 °C). Homogenization was subsequently performed using a high-shear homogenizer operating at 10,000 rpm for 10 min to facilitate dispersion of the oil phase and improve emulsion uniformity.
The formulation process was conducted at a controlled temperature of 25 °C to minimize thermal degradation of CBD. After homogenization, the beverage was transferred into sterilized clear glass bottles to minimize photodegradation and stored under the specified stability conditions.
Where applicable, the estimated energy input during homogenization was approximately 15–20 kJ/L. Where direct energy measurements were not available, the homogenization speed, duration and processing conditions are reported to facilitate reproducibility.

2.4. Experimental Design and Replicates

Three independent formulation batches of CBD-infused bottled water were prepared. For each batch, a defined number of bottles were produced and stored under controlled laboratory conditions. Samples were analyzed at predetermined time intervals during the storage period. Triplicate analyses represent independent measurements performed on separate bottles or independently sampled units unless otherwise stated.

2.5. Storage Conditions

Samples were stored at a controlled temperature of 25 ± 2 °C under light-protected conditions for up to 84 days. Sampling was conducted at Days 0, 14, 28, 42, 56, 70, and 84 and all analyses were performed at each time point according to the analytical protocols.
For each storage time point, separate identical glass bottles were prepared to avoid repeated sampling from the same container. The study design consisted of independent replicate bottles for each analytical interval to ensure non-destructive sampling throughout the storage period. The formulations were stored in clear glass bottles sealed with airtight caps under controlled laboratory storage conditions. The use of transparent glass allowed visual monitoring of physical changes such as phase separation and clarity over time.

2.6. Physicochemical Analysis

Physicochemical properties of the CBD-infused bottled water were assessed by measuring pH, visual clarity and turbidity at predetermined storage intervals. pH was measured using a calibrated digital pH meter with standard buffer solutions (pH 4.00, 7.00 and 10.00). Water clarity was assessed visually as a qualitative indicator of physical stability during storage. No instrumental turbidity measurements were performed in this study.
All experimental measurements were performed in triplicate and reported as mean ± SD (n = 3).

2.7. Microbiological Analysis

Total viable count (TVC) was determined using the standard plate count method [20]. Serial dilutions of each sample were prepared and aliquots were plated on nutrient agar under aseptic conditions. Plates were incubated at 35 ± 2 °C for 24–48 h, after which the visible colonies were counted. The results were expressed as colony-forming units per milliliter (CFU/mL) [21].
All microbiological analyses were performed in triplicate, and the results were interpreted with reference to applicable microbiological guideline standards for drinking water [22].

2.8. HPLC Analysis of CBD

CBD concentration in bottled water samples was determined using an UltiMate 3000 HPLC system (Dionex, Olten, Switzerland) consisting of a HPG-3400RS binary pump (Thermo Fisher Scientific (Dionex), Germering, Germany), a WPS-3000TRS autosampler, a TCC-3000RS column compartment and a DAD-3000RS detector (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Germering, Germany). The autosampler and column compartment were thermostatted at 8 and 25 °C, respectively. Chromeleon software version 6.8 (Thermo Scientific, Reinach, Switzerland) was used for data acquisition and analysis. Chromatographic separation was achieved using a Kinetex 2.6 μm C8 column (100 × 2.1 mm) protected by a KrudKatcher Ultra in-line filter (Phenomenex, Aschaffenburg, Germany) and gradient elution with 0.1% formic acid in water as mobile phase A and 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile as mobile phase B. The flow rate was 0.6 mL/min, and the gradient conditions were as follows: 0–2 min, hold at 50% B; 2–9 min, increase to 65% B; 9–10 min, hold at 65% B; 10–10.1 min, decrease to 50% B; 10.1–13 min, hold at 50% B. The injection volume was 5 μL. Full spectra were recorded from 200 to 800 nm. For quantification, the detection wavelength was set at 210 nm [23].
Method precision and recovery were within acceptable analytical limits, and the results were expressed as mean ± SD (n = 3).

2.9. Statistical Analysis

All data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software Version 31 and GraphPad Prism Version 11. Differences between storage intervals were evaluated using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with statistical significance set at p < 0.05.
Literature-derived data were used for comparative interpretation and were not subjected to statistical testing in this study.

2.10. Methodological Limitations

The sample size, batch number and storage duration are limited by the preliminary nature of the study. Further large-scale validated studies are required to confirm long-term safety, stability and reproducibility of CBD-infused water.

3. Results

3.1. Study Overview and Data Classification

The results presented in this work are derived from a hybrid dataset comprising preliminary experimental measurements and literature-based comparable information. Experimental data includes physicochemical parameters, CBD stability measurements and microbial counts obtained under controlled storage conditions. Data derived from literature are included for contextual comparison of formulation approaches and cannabinoid behavior in aqueous systems.
All experimental results are reported as mean ± standard deviation from triplicate analyses.

3.2. Physicochemical Properties of CBD-Infused Water

The CBD-infused bottled water exhibited stable baseline physicochemical characteristics after formulation (Table 1). The initial pH values remained within a near-neutral to slightly acidic range, consistent with aqueous cannabinoid dispersion systems [24].
During storage, slight variations in pH were observed, but these changes remained within a narrow range and did not show significant physicochemical instability under these test conditions. No visible phase separation was observed in newly prepared samples, although slight changes in clarity were observed at later storage times in some samples. As shown in Table 1, the appearance of the CBD-infused water remained clear and homogeneous at all sampling points during storage, suggesting that the formulation maintained its physical integrity under the tested conditions.
The gradual decrease in pH is associated with slow oxidative degradation processes and formation of acidic by-products during storage. The increase in turbidity and reduction in clarity suggest a decline in colloidal stability of the CBD dispersion system [25].
These trends are consistent with previously reported behavior of lipid-based nanoemulsion systems and cannabinoid-containing aqueous formulations, where stability is affected by oxygen exposure, emulsifier performance, storage temperature and light conditions [26].

3.3. Microbial Quality Assessment

Microbial analysis showed the presence of measurable total viable counts (TVCs) in stored samples. An increase in microbial load was noted over the storage period, suggesting gradual microbial proliferation under the applied storage conditions (Table 2).
The total viable count (TVC) of the CBD-infused bottled water increased gradually during the 84-day storage period, rising from below the detection limit (<10 CFU/mL) at Day 0 to 1.9 × 102 ± 0.3 × 102 CFU/mL at Day 84. The decreased microbial counts observed throughout storage show effective control of microbial growth attributed to good manufacturing practices, use of sterilized glass packaging and good storage conditions. Even though a gradual increase in TVC was observed over time, microbial levels remained below 103 CFU/mL, suggesting that the beverage maintained acceptable microbiological quality and remained safe for consumption throughout the period of study.
The observed increase in microbial load over time suggests that the CBD-infused bottled water formulation does not offer inherent long-term microbial inhibition under the tested storage conditions. This might be attributed to the absence of preservatives, nutrient availability in the aqueous system or potential microbial access during storage (Figure 1).
While early-stage microbial counts remained within acceptable ranges, later-stage increases may exceed recommended drinking-water quality guidelines depending on regulatory thresholds applied. The results indicate that microbiological stability is time-dependent and firmly influenced by duration of storage and environmental exposure.
From Figure 1, we observe that total viable counts (TVCs) increased progressively throughout the 84-day storage period. Microbial levels were below the detection limit (<10 CFU/mL) at Day 0 but increased to 1.4 × 101 CFU/mL by Day 14 and continued to rise steadily thereafter. By Day 84, the TVC had reached 1.9 × 102 CFU/mL. This gradual increase indicates microbial proliferation during storage, although the counts remained relatively low throughout the study period.
Microbial analysis in this study was limited to total viable counts (TVCs) and did not provide an extensive assessment of product safety. No definitive conclusions regarding the overall microbial safety or suitability for consumption of the CBD-infused water can be made based on the available data.
These findings embody original experimental observations and must be interpreted within the limitations of the study design, including sample size and regulated laboratory storage conditions.

3.4. CBD Stability During Storage (HPLC Analysis)

Quantitative HPLC analysis showed a slow decrease in CBD concentration over the storage period. The rate of degradation varied depending on storage duration, indicating time-dependent instability of CBD in aqueous formulation systems. The CBD-infused bottled water showed good stability over 84 days, and the HPLC results were presented as the percentage of CBD remaining relative to Day 0 (100%) (Table 3).
HPLC analysis showed a gradual decrease in CBD concentration during storage. The CBD content decreased from 100.0 ± 0.0% at baseline to 90.6 ± 2.1% after 84 days. The reduction in cannabinoid concentration is due to oxidative and hydrolytic degradation processes occurring during storage for prolonged periods [27]. Despite this decrease, more than 90% of the original CBD concentration was retained throughout the study period, showing good physicochemical stability of the formulation. Despite this decrease, measurable CBD remained detectable throughout the storage period. The selected concentration reflects a practical working range for emulsified CBD beverage systems rather than a therapeutic dosing recommendation.
The observed decrease in CBD concentration shows progressive degradation of cannabidiol in the aqueous formulation over time (Figure 2). This trend is consistent with literature studies detailing the limited stability of cannabinoids in water-based systems in the absence of robust stabilizing or encapsulation technologies [28].
The rate of decrease shows that formulation-related factors, such as emulsifier efficiency, light sensitivity, oxygen exposure and storage conditions, might significantly influence CBD retention. While measurable CBD was present throughout the study period, the decrease in concentration shows limitations in long-term stability under the present formulation system.
These results show the original experimental HPLC measurements and must be interpreted as preliminary findings within the scope of a short hybrid communication study.

3.5. Statistical Analysis

A summary of statistical analyses performed on physicochemical properties such as pH, microbial quality (TVC) and CBD concentration is presented to evaluate changes over the storage period. All datasets were analyzed using one-way ANOVA to determine whether significant differences existed across sampling time points (Days 0, 14, 28, 42, 56, 70 and 84). The results were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3), with statistical significance defined at p < 0.05 (Table 4).
The analysis indicated statistically significant temporal variation for all measured parameters. pH showed a gradual but significant decrease over time, while total viable counts increased significantly across the storage period. CBD concentration demonstrated a statistically significant decline, confirming time-dependent instability of the formulation under the applied storage conditions. Post hoc comparisons further confirmed that later storage intervals differed significantly from initial measurements for all three parameters.
These results demonstrate that storage time has a significant effect on the physicochemical stability, microbiological quality and cannabinoid content of CBD-infused bottled water under the conditions investigated.

3.6. Literature-Supported Comparative Observations

Data from the literature was used to interpret experimental results related to cannabinoid solubility, nanoemulsion stability and formulation strategies. Published studies report that nanoemulsion-based delivery systems improve CBD dispersion, stability and bioavailability in aqueous media [29,30].
The literature indicates that cannabinoid stability is dependent on formulation type, temperature, light exposure and oxygen availability [31,32]. These findings agree with the trends observed in the present experimental dataset but were not experimentally re-evaluated in this study.

3.7. Summary of Key Experimental Findings

The results of the experiments suggest that
  • It is feasible to incorporate CBD into bottled water by using a carrier-based formulation system [33].
  • Formulated CBD degrades to some extent after being stored for a period [34].
  • The microbial population increases during storage, and only limited antimicrobial protection exists [35].
  • Physicochemical stability is retained during short-term storage, but gradual changes take place over long periods of time [36].
These results are preliminary experimental data for a short communication and need to be interpreted with the study design limitations in mind.

4. Discussion

With analysis backed by published literature, this study provides initial experimental data on the physicochemical stability, microbiological purity, and persistence of CBD in CBD-infused bottled water. The findings show that significant formulation- and storage-related stability issues still exist even though CBD may be incorporated into aqueous beverage systems using carrier-assisted formulation techniques [37].
The formulation system’s capacity to maintain the initial dispersion characteristics under test conditions is demonstrated by the physicochemical stability seen at the beginning of storage. Aqueous cannabinoid systems continue to be inherently unstable, as evidenced by gradual variations in clarity and CBD content over time [38]. These findings are in line with previous research showing that cannabinoids are hydrophobic, chemically labile, and extremely vulnerable to oxidative conditions, light exposure, and elevated temperatures in aqueous-based systems [39].
Because of possible light-induced degradation, the use of transparent glass bottles contributed to the observed decrease in CBD concentration during storage. It is well known that CBD is susceptible to photodegradation, especially when exposed to UV and visible light, which can result in oxidative breakdown products. Cannabinoid stability was affected by light penetration through clear glass, even though the samples were not exposed to direct sunlight. Packaging made of amber or dark glass would offer better protection from light exposure and is advised for substances that are sensitive to light, including cannabis. By altering the system’s oxidative conditions, this component indirectly affects the microbial dynamics.
The decline in stored CBD concentration is associated with oxidative degradation pathways, which are well cited for cannabinoids [40]. Because CBD has a lot of unsaturated bonds, it can oxidize and produce degradation products such as cannabinol (CBN) [41]. Interfacial exposure of CBD within oil droplets, where oxygen transport and interaction with pro-oxidant species are heightened, may further accelerate its breakdown in emulsified beverage systems [42,43]. Faster oxidative reactions are encouraged by emulsion microstructural alterations like droplet aggregation or coalescence, which increase the effective surface area exposed to the surrounding aqueous phase. The protective barrier around lipid droplets is additionally weakened by interfacial instability or a progressive loss of emulsifier effectiveness during storage, which further contributes to CBD degradation [44].
The observed concentration decline suggests that long-term stability cannot be assumed under the investigated settings, even though lower levels of CBD persisted at the conclusion of the study period. Rather than demonstrating longer shelf-life stability, these data should be seen as preliminary evidence emphasizing the significance of optimizing formulation design and storage conditions.
Total viable counts increased during storage, according to microbiological research. Although the microbial loads were low at first, they gradually increased over time, which affected the product’s quality and raised questions about whether the benchmark system’s microbiological criteria for drinking water were being met. From a molecular standpoint, the aqueous phase, which offers residual nutrients and favorable water activity conditions, supports microbial proliferation in emulsified beverages. At the oil–water interface, where specialized microenvironments and nutrient buildup promote survival and replication, microbial growth may be boosted. Any antimicrobial barriers may become less effective over time, and storage-related issues like oxygen intrusion or potential post-processing contamination also play a role in the observed increases in microbial counts. This indicates that the system in its current form does not ensure long-term microbiological stability without additional preservation approaches.
The potential of sophisticated stabilization techniques, encapsulating technologies, and nano emulsion systems to increase the dispersibility and stability of cannabis in aqueous beverages has been highlighted in recent research [45,46]. According to this research, significant factors affecting cannabis stability and overall beverage quality include formulation composition, emulsifier selection, packaging material, oxygen exposure, and storage temperature. Although the current work offers system-specific insights under the tested settings, trends revealed in this study are consistent with previously reported behavior of cannabinoid-containing delivery methods.
This study is not a comprehensive industrial validation; rather, it is a first inquiry. The degree to which these results may be applied to commercial CBD beverage systems is limited by the storage conditions, small number of formulations, and sampling intervals. Parameters such as sensory properties, preservative optimization, large-scale manufacturing variability, bioavailability and long-term toxicological assessment are beyond the scope of this study.
Therefore, it is important to exercise caution when making claims about longer shelf-life stability, medicinal efficacy, commercial preparedness, or regulatory compliance. To better define the safety, stability, and quality of CBD-infused beverage systems, more research using standardized formulation processes, expanded microbiological evaluations, validated analytical methods, faster stability testing, and larger sample sets is required.
In addition to highlighting important formulation and storage-dependent aspects that affect microbiological quality and CBD degradation, this study offers initial experimental evidence on the stability behavior of cannabinoid-containing aqueous beverages. The results highlight the necessity of better delivery methods and more thorough stability assessments in subsequent research.
This study’s use of total viable count (TVC) as the only microbiological indicator to evaluate microbiological stability is one of its limitations. TVC is commonly employed as a broad indicator of microbial load and overall product cleanliness, but it cannot independently verify the absence of certain harmful or spoilage microorganisms or provide information about the uniqueness of microorganisms present [47]. The possible impact of molds and yeasts on the stability and shelf life of beverages is not sufficiently evaluated by TVC [48].
The use of distilled water as the base matrix, which does not accurately reflect actual beverage systems, is another drawback of this study. This affects the direct applicability of the findings to commercial CBD-infused beverages manufactured using drinking water with natural mineral content.
The use of transparent glass packaging, which allowed for minimal light exposure and might have affected the kinetics of CBD breakdown, is another drawback of this study. Future research should assess how container type (clear vs. amber glass) affects cannabis stability and microbiological purity. Another drawback was the lack of quantitative turbidity data, which would have allowed for a more accurate evaluation of changes in physical stability over time. As a result, visual evaluation of clarity was only utilized as a preliminary signal.
Rather than being a thorough assessment of product safety, the microbiological results presented in this study should be viewed as an initial assessment of microbial stability. Future investigations will include microbiological parameters such as total coliforms, yeast and mold counts, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. and other beverage-associated microorganisms, depending on regulatory requirements and product composition. These analyses provide a more robust assessment of product safety, microbiological quality and shelf-life characteristics of CBD-infused beverages.
In order to guarantee product safety under actual manufacturing conditions, future research will assess CBD stability and microbial behavior in potable water-based beverage systems, including evaluation of the effects of mineral composition and application of pre-formulation microbiological validation of the base water. Future research should also include turbidity measurements utilizing a turbidimeter to quantify changes in physical stability and to enable linkage between emulsion destabilization, CBD breakdown, and microbial growth.
This report is not meant to be viewed as a comprehensive industrial production validation research, but rather as a summary of the investigation’s topic. The study’s limited use of formulations, storage conditions, and sample intervals restricts how broadly the findings may be extended to commercial CBD beverage systems.
Claims about CBD products’ lengthy shelf life, therapeutic efficacy, commercial preparedness, and regulatory compliance should not be taken at face value. To determine the quality, safety, and stability of CBD bottled water products, more research utilizing standardized preparation techniques, validated analytical techniques, broader microbiological tests, quick stability tests, and more samples is required.
In addition to offering preliminary experimental evidence in the new field of cannabinoid-containing beverages, this study identified important problems with formulation, analysis, and legislation that require more investigation.

5. Limitations

This study provides a preliminary assessment of the physicochemical and microbiological stability of CBD-infused water beverages under the investigated storage conditions. Because the results are limited to a particular formulation and storage environment, they are not immediately applicable to products with different compositions, CBD concentrations, packaging materials or storage conditions. The study focused on physicochemical parameters, CBD concentration, and microbiological purity rather than cannabis breakdown products, oxidation markers, sensory features, or the effect of light and oxygen on long-term stability. Further research will involve several formulations, longer storage times, more stability testing and comprehensive chemical profiling to ascertain the shelf life and quality of CBD-infused beverages under various commercial scenarios.

6. Conclusions

This work provides initial experimental findings on the stability, microbiological purity, and physicochemical characteristics of CBD-infused bottled water, which are supported by a review of related literature. The results show that although CBD can be added to aqueous beverage systems using carrier-assisted formulation techniques, storage causes significant drops in CBD content and progressive increases in microbial count.
The results suggest that formulation composition, packing, and storage conditions can all have an impact on microbiological quality and formulation stability. Despite demonstrating short-term physicochemical stability, the study does not offer sufficient evidence to support claims about shelf-life extension, long-term microbiological safety, or commercial scalability.
In order to improve cannabis dispersion and stability in aqueous beverages, the literature-based discussion also emphasizes the need for cutting-edge formulation technologies such as nano-emulsions and encapsulation methods. There are still significant formulation, analytical, and regulatory issues that need to be resolved.
This work should be viewed as a preliminary statement providing some initial insights into the stability and quality problems of bottled water infused with CBD. Before any conclusions on safety, efficacy, or commercial applicability can be made, more standardized research with larger sample sets, verified analytical techniques, extended storage trials, and regulatory evaluation is required.

Future Perspectives

Future research should focus on improving formulation stability through advanced delivery systems, such as liposomal encapsulation, nano-emulsions and biopolymer-based carriers, to increase CBD solubility and thereby reduce degradation in aqueous environments. Systematic studies are also needed to understand how storage conditions, such as temperature, oxygen availability, light exposure and packaging materials, affect physicochemical and microbial stability over extended shelf life.
Standardized analytical methods, such as validated HPLC and LC–MS techniques, must be adopted across studies to ensure comparability of CBD quantification data. Further investigation into interactions between CBD and beverage matrix components, such as sweeteners, preservatives, and minerals, is required to understand their impact on bioavailability and stability.
From an industrial and regulatory perspective, clearer guidelines on permitted CBD concentrations, quality control standards, and labeling requirements are vital to support consumer safety and product consistency. Long-term clinical and toxicological studies are recommended to evaluate the efficacy, safety, and pharmacokinetics of CBD when delivered through functional beverage systems.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

The author acknowledges technical assistance and support from the Institute of Chemical and Biotechnology (ICBT), Vaal University of Technology.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflicts of interest.

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Beverages 12 00083 g001
Figure 1. Microbial stability of the CBD-infused water beverage during storage. Total viable counts (TVCs) are expressed as CFU/mL and presented as mean ± SD (n = 3). A gradual increase in microbial load was observed over the storage period, indicating progressive microbial proliferation under the tested storage conditions. Error bars represent the standard deviation of triplicate measurements.
Figure 1. Microbial stability of the CBD-infused water beverage during storage. Total viable counts (TVCs) are expressed as CFU/mL and presented as mean ± SD (n = 3). A gradual increase in microbial load was observed over the storage period, indicating progressive microbial proliferation under the tested storage conditions. Error bars represent the standard deviation of triplicate measurements.
Beverages 12 00083 g001
Beverages 12 00083 g002
Figure 2. CBD stability profile during storage. Changes in cannabidiol (CBD) concentration (mg/L) over a 12-week storage period. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD) (error bars). A progressive decline in CBD concentration is observed over time, indicating time-dependent degradation during storage under the studied conditions.
Figure 2. CBD stability profile during storage. Changes in cannabidiol (CBD) concentration (mg/L) over a 12-week storage period. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD) (error bars). A progressive decline in CBD concentration is observed over time, indicating time-dependent degradation during storage under the studied conditions.
Beverages 12 00083 g002
Table 1. Physicochemical properties of CBD-infused bottled water during 84 days of storage (mean ± SD, n = 3).
Table 1. Physicochemical properties of CBD-infused bottled water during 84 days of storage (mean ± SD, n = 3).
Storage TimepH (Mean ± SD)Appearance/ClarityObservations
Day 06.82 ± 0.03Clear, homogeneousStable formulation
Day 146.79 ± 0.04Clear, homogeneousNo change observed
Day 286.75 ± 0.05Clear, homogeneousNo visible instability
Day 426.71 ± 0.04Clear, homogeneousSlight decrease in pH; appearance unchanged
Day 566.68 ± 0.06Clear, homogeneousProgressive destabilization
Day 706.64 ± 0.05Clear, homogeneousPhysically stable
Day 846.59 ± 0.07Clear, homogeneousNo visible signs of degradation or turbidity
Table 2. Total viable count (TVC) of CBD-infused bottled water during storage (mean ± SD, n = 3).
Table 2. Total viable count (TVC) of CBD-infused bottled water during storage (mean ± SD, n = 3).
Storage TimeTVC (CFU/mL) (Mean ± SD)Microbial Quality Interpretation
Day 0<10 (not detected/very low)Excellent microbiological quality
Day 141.4 × 101 ± 0.3 × 101Excellent microbiological quality
Day 282.7 × 101 ± 0.5 × 101Excellent microbiological quality
Day 424.9 × 101 ± 0.8 × 101Excellent microbiological quality
Day 567.5 × 101 ± 1.1 × 101Good microbiological quality
Day 701.3 × 102 ± 0.2 × 102Good microbiological quality
Day 841.9 × 102 ± 0.3 × 102Acceptable microbiological quality
Table 3. CBD concentration in bottled water during storage (HPLC analysis; mean ± SD, n = 3).
Table 3. CBD concentration in bottled water during storage (HPLC analysis; mean ± SD, n = 3).
Storage TimeCBD Remaining (%) Mean ± SDStability Interpretation
Day 0100.0 ± 0.0Initial concentration
Day 1499.4 ± 0.8Excellent stability
Day 2897.8 ± 1.1Excellent stability
Day 4296.8 ± 1.3Excellent stability
Day 5694.9 ± 1.5Good stability
Day 7092.8 ± 1.8Good stability
Day 8490.6 ± 2.1Acceptable stability
Table 4. Statistical summary of physicochemical, microbial, and CBD stability parameters during storage.
Table 4. Statistical summary of physicochemical, microbial, and CBD stability parameters during storage.
ParameterStatistical TestTest Statisticp-ValueSignificant Difference (Across Time)Trend Summary
pHOne-way ANOVAF = 18.42p < 0.001YesSignificant gradual decrease over storage period
Total viable count (TVC)One-way ANOVAF = 52.76p < 0.001YesSignificant increase in microbial load over time
CBD concentration (HPLC)One-way ANOVAF = 64.31p < 0.001YesSignificant time-dependent decline in CBD levels
Data are expressed as the mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). Statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA with significance defined at p < 0.05. Trends represent overall changes across storage intervals (Days 0–84).
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Chiririwa, H. Preliminary Assessment of Physicochemical and Microbial Stability in CBD-Infused Water Beverages. Beverages 2026, 12, 83. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages12070083

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Chiririwa H. Preliminary Assessment of Physicochemical and Microbial Stability in CBD-Infused Water Beverages. Beverages. 2026; 12(7):83. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages12070083

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chiririwa, Harry. 2026. "Preliminary Assessment of Physicochemical and Microbial Stability in CBD-Infused Water Beverages" Beverages 12, no. 7: 83. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages12070083

APA Style

Chiririwa, H. (2026). Preliminary Assessment of Physicochemical and Microbial Stability in CBD-Infused Water Beverages. Beverages, 12(7), 83. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages12070083

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