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Volume 12
Issue 9
10.3390/hydrology12090237
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Article

Hydrochemical Variability in Karst Hypothermal Mineral Springs of Greece

by
Nerantzis Kazakis
1,*,
Vasiliki Stavropoulou
1,
Maria Margarita Ntona
2,
Christos Pouliaris
1,
Maria Papailiopoulou
1,
Eleni-Anna Nanou
1,
Apostolis Tsoutanis
2,
Dimitra Lambropoulou
3 and
Eleni Zagana
1
1
Laboratory of Hydrogeology, Department of Geology, University of Patras, GR-26504 Patras, Greece
2
Laboratory of Engineering Geology & Hydrogeology, Department of Geology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
3
Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Hydrology 2025, 12(9), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology12090237
Submission received: 1 August 2025 / Revised: 6 September 2025 / Accepted: 10 September 2025 / Published: 13 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Pollution: Sources, Mechanisms, and Prevention (Second Edition))
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Abstract

In Greece, the geodynamics of karst hypothermal–mineral springs, in which often shallow fresh groundwater is intermixed, is not well known. This study aims to investigate the monthly hydrochemical variability of three karst hypothermal mineral springs in Greece named Kyllini (southern Greece), Agiasma (northern Greece), and Voskina (northern Greece). Hence, monthly samples were collected and an analysis of major and trace elements, ion ratios, and saturation indices was performed, as well as statistical analysis and cross correlation. Elevated concentrations of Ca2+, Mg2+, and HCO3− are present in all springs, indicating that the dissolution of calcite and dolomite constitutes the main water–rock interaction process. Additionally, the mobilization and transport of Mn, Fe, and As are favored by the negative ORP values. However, there are also differences between the three springs. The Kyllini spring is characterized by high salinity and dominated by Na–Cl–HCO3 water, while the Agiasma spring exhibits a mixed water type with moderate salinity. The Voskina spring reflects a fresher, bicarbonate-dominated aquifer system with modest trace element mobilization. This study provides the first comprehensive monthly assessment of the hydrochemical response of karst hypothermal–mineral springs in Greece, offering new insights into seasonal geochemical dynamics.
Keywords: hydrochemistry; trace elements; saturation indices; hypothermal mineral groundwater; statistical analysis; Greece hydrochemistry; trace elements; saturation indices; hypothermal mineral groundwater; statistical analysis; Greece

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MDPI and ACS Style

Kazakis, N.; Stavropoulou, V.; Ntona, M.M.; Pouliaris, C.; Papailiopoulou, M.; Nanou, E.-A.; Tsoutanis, A.; Lambropoulou, D.; Zagana, E. Hydrochemical Variability in Karst Hypothermal Mineral Springs of Greece. Hydrology 2025, 12, 237. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology12090237

AMA Style

Kazakis N, Stavropoulou V, Ntona MM, Pouliaris C, Papailiopoulou M, Nanou E-A, Tsoutanis A, Lambropoulou D, Zagana E. Hydrochemical Variability in Karst Hypothermal Mineral Springs of Greece. Hydrology. 2025; 12(9):237. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology12090237

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kazakis, Nerantzis, Vasiliki Stavropoulou, Maria Margarita Ntona, Christos Pouliaris, Maria Papailiopoulou, Eleni-Anna Nanou, Apostolis Tsoutanis, Dimitra Lambropoulou, and Eleni Zagana. 2025. "Hydrochemical Variability in Karst Hypothermal Mineral Springs of Greece" Hydrology 12, no. 9: 237. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology12090237

APA Style

Kazakis, N., Stavropoulou, V., Ntona, M. M., Pouliaris, C., Papailiopoulou, M., Nanou, E.-A., Tsoutanis, A., Lambropoulou, D., & Zagana, E. (2025). Hydrochemical Variability in Karst Hypothermal Mineral Springs of Greece. Hydrology, 12(9), 237. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology12090237

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