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Volume 14
Issue 4
10.3390/toxics14040286
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Review

Health Risk and Pathogenesis of PM2.5 in Human Systems

by
Ronghua Zhang
1,
Zhengliang Zhang
1,2,3,
Ziru Zhou
1,3,
Fang Yi
1,
Yulan Yang
1,
Dongmei Guo
1,
Qianying Zhang
1,
Hanyan Wang
1,
Yang Chen
4,
Jingli Qian
5,
Shike Shang
5,
Fumo Yang
6,
Mi Tian
7,
Jingyu Chen
1,* and
Shumin Zhang
1,*
1
Institute of Basic Medicine, North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong 637000, China
2
Department of Stomatology, Shenzhen People’s Hospital Longhua Branch, Shenzhen 518109, China
3
School of Public Health, North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong 637000, China
4
Research Center for Atmospheric Environment, Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chongqing 400714, China
5
Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Rehabilitation, First People’s Hospital of Chongqing Liang Jiang New Area, Chongqing 401121, China
6
College of Architecture and Environment, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
7
Key Laboratory of Three Gorges Reservoir Region’s Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Toxics 2026, 14(4), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14040286
Submission received: 5 February 2026 / Revised: 21 March 2026 / Accepted: 23 March 2026 / Published: 27 March 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Emissions Characteristics and Its Impact on Human Health—2nd Edition)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) poses a significant global environmental health threat and is closely associated with diseases across multiple organ systems. This review systematically summarizes the toxic effects and underlying mechanisms of PM2.5 in the respiratory, cardiovascular, nervous, immune, endocrine, digestive, and genitourinary systems. Key pathogenic processes involve shared pathways such as oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, endoplasmic reticulum stress, autophagy, and apoptosis, along with the activation of system-specific signaling networks. The complex composition and notable spatiotemporal variability of PM2.5 present challenges for assessing its health risks and clarifying its mechanisms. Moving forward, integrating multi-omics and molecular epidemiology approaches will be essential to unravel its multi-system pathogenic networks and support the development of effective intervention strategies.
Keywords: PM2.5; multi-system toxicity; molecular mechanisms; health risk PM2.5; multi-system toxicity; molecular mechanisms; health risk

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zhang, R.; Zhang, Z.; Zhou, Z.; Yi, F.; Yang, Y.; Guo, D.; Zhang, Q.; Wang, H.; Chen, Y.; Qian, J.; et al. Health Risk and Pathogenesis of PM2.5 in Human Systems. Toxics 2026, 14, 286. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14040286

AMA Style

Zhang R, Zhang Z, Zhou Z, Yi F, Yang Y, Guo D, Zhang Q, Wang H, Chen Y, Qian J, et al. Health Risk and Pathogenesis of PM2.5 in Human Systems. Toxics. 2026; 14(4):286. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14040286

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Ronghua, Zhengliang Zhang, Ziru Zhou, Fang Yi, Yulan Yang, Dongmei Guo, Qianying Zhang, Hanyan Wang, Yang Chen, Jingli Qian, and et al. 2026. "Health Risk and Pathogenesis of PM2.5 in Human Systems" Toxics 14, no. 4: 286. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14040286

APA Style

Zhang, R., Zhang, Z., Zhou, Z., Yi, F., Yang, Y., Guo, D., Zhang, Q., Wang, H., Chen, Y., Qian, J., Shang, S., Yang, F., Tian, M., Chen, J., & Zhang, S. (2026). Health Risk and Pathogenesis of PM2.5 in Human Systems. Toxics, 14(4), 286. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14040286

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