Association of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances with Pan-Cancers Associated with Sex Hormones
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Cancers Linked to Sex Hormones Across Sexes
- For breast cancer: “Have you ever been informed that you have had breast cancer?” (yes/no)
- For testicular cancer: “Have you ever been told that you had testicular cancer?” (yes/no)
- For ovarian cancer: “Have you ever been informed that you had ovarian cancer?” (yes/no)
- For prostate cancer: “Have you ever been told that you had prostatic cancer?” (yes/no)
2.3. Assessment of PFAS Exposure
2.4. Statistical Analysis
2.4.1. Descriptive Statistics
2.4.2. Correlation Analysis
2.4.3. Logistic Regression
2.4.4. Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression (BKMR)
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics of Critical Variables in the Study
3.2. t-Tests and Chi-Square Tests
3.3. Spearman and Pearson Correlation Analysis
3.4. Regression Analysis
3.5. Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression
3.5.1. Posterior Inclusion Probability When Quantifying the Influence of PFAS Exposures in PCSH
3.5.2. Univariate Analysis of the Isolated Effects of Each PFAS Variable on PCSH
3.5.3. Bivariate Exposure-Response Analysis of Joint PFAS Exposures on PCSH
3.5.4. Overall Exposure-Response Analysis of PFASs on PCSH
3.5.5. Single-Variable Effects of PFASs on PCSH
3.5.6. Single-Variable Interactions of PFASs on PCSH
4. Discussion
4.1. Strengths and Limitations of the Study
4.2. Public Health Implications
4.3. Future Research Directions
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Description | Frequency (n) | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | Male | 7117 | 49.52 |
Female | 7256 | 50.48 | |
Race/Ethnicity | Mexican American | 2714 | 18.88 |
Other Hispanic | 1240 | 8.63 | |
Non-Hispanic White | 5803 | 40.37 | |
Non-Hispanic Black | 3233 | 22.49 | |
Other races | 1383 | 9.62 | |
Having PCSH | No | 14,087 | 98.04 |
Yes | 282 | 1.96 |
Variable | Mean (SD) | Minimum | Median (IQR) | Maximum |
---|---|---|---|---|
PFOA | 3.31 (2.89) | 0.07 | 2.67 (1.57–4.30) | 104.00 |
PFOS | 13.99 (16.02) | 0.14 | 9.80 (4.80–18.00) | 435.00 |
PFHxS | 2.31 (3.19) | 0.07 | 1.50 (0.80–2.60) | 82.00 |
PFDE | 0.34 (0.55) | 0.07 | 0.20 (0.14–0.400 | 25.20 |
PFNA | 1.15 (1.30) | 0.06 | 0.90 (0.56–1.39) | 80.77 |
PFUA | 0.24 (0.46) | 0.07 | 0.14 (0.10–0.20) | 28.50 |
Variable | Mean (SD) n = 14,373 | PCSH (+) n = 282 | No PCSH (−) n = 14,087 | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
PFOA | 3.31 (2.89) | 3.32 (2.40) | 3.31 (2.90) | 0.9216 |
PFOS | 13.99 (16.02) | 17.23 (17.77) | 13.93 (15.96) | 0.0022 ** |
PFHxS | 2.31 (3.19) | 2.47 (2.45) | 2.31 (3.20) | 0.2865 |
PFDE | 0.34 (0.55) | 0.35 (0.34) | 0.34 (0.55) | 0.7333 |
PFNA | 1.15 (1.30) | 1.24 (1.05) | 1.15 (1.30) | 0.1643 |
PFUA | 0.24 (0.46) | 0.24 (0.27) | 0.24 (0.46) | 0.9506 |
Variable | Description | PCSH (+) n (%) | No PCSH (−) n (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | Male | 151 (53.55) | 6965 (49.44) |
Female | 131 (46.45) | 7122 (50.56) | |
Race/Ethnicity | Mexican American | 17 (6.03) | 2696 (19.14) |
Other Hispanic | 21 (7.45) | 1219 (8.65) | |
Non-Hispanic White | 161 (57.09) | 5641 (40.04) | |
Non-Hispanic Black | 59 (20.92) | 3172 (22.52) | |
Other races, including multiracial | 24 (8.51) | 1359 (9.65) |
Coefficients | Std. Error | Z Value | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
PFOA | −0.067 | 0.032 | −2.096 | 0.036 ** |
PFOS | −0.0004 | 0.005 | −0.090 | 0.928 |
PFHxS | 0.011 | 0.024 | 0.443 | 0.657 |
PFDE | 0.088 | 0.198 | 0.441 | 0.658 |
PFNA | 0.034 | 0.033 | 1.021 | 0.307 |
PFUA | −0.283 | 0.2978 | −0.950 | 0.342 |
Variables | Odds Ratio | 2.5% | 97.5% |
---|---|---|---|
PFOA | 0.935 | 0.876 | 0.994 |
PFOS | 1.000 | 0.989 | 1.009 |
PFHxS | 1.011 | 0.959 | 1.055 |
PFDE | 1.092 | 0.681 | 1.443 |
PFNA | 1.034 | 0.935 | 1.093 |
PFUA | 0.754 | 0.405 | 1.272 |
Variable | PIP |
---|---|
PFOA | 0.1792 |
PFOS | 0.0772 |
PFHxS | 0.0404 |
PFDE | 0.0690 |
PFNA | 0.0032 |
PFUA | 0.1036 |
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Olarewaju, E.; Obeng-Gyasi, E. Association of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances with Pan-Cancers Associated with Sex Hormones. Toxics 2025, 13, 501. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060501
Olarewaju E, Obeng-Gyasi E. Association of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances with Pan-Cancers Associated with Sex Hormones. Toxics. 2025; 13(6):501. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060501
Chicago/Turabian StyleOlarewaju, Elizabeth, and Emmanuel Obeng-Gyasi. 2025. "Association of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances with Pan-Cancers Associated with Sex Hormones" Toxics 13, no. 6: 501. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060501
APA StyleOlarewaju, E., & Obeng-Gyasi, E. (2025). Association of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances with Pan-Cancers Associated with Sex Hormones. Toxics, 13(6), 501. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060501