Next Article in Journal
Research on the Optimal Regulation of Sudden Water Pollution
Next Article in Special Issue
The Identification of Drug Abuse
Previous Article in Journal
Heavy Metal Contamination in the Aquatic Ecosystem: Toxicity and Its Remediation Using Eco-Friendly Approaches
Previous Article in Special Issue
UPLC-MS/MS Based Identification and Quantification of a Novel Dual Orexin Receptor Antagonist in Plasma Samples by Validated SWGTOX Guidelines
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Toxics
Volume 11
Issue 2
10.3390/toxics11020148
toxics-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Systematic Review

Hofmann vs. Paracelsus: Do Psychedelics Defy the Basics of Toxicology?—A Systematic Review of the Main Ergolamines, Simple Tryptamines, and Phenylethylamines

by
Luis Alberto Henríquez-Hernández
1,2,*,
Jaime Rojas-Hernández
2,3,
Domingo J. Quintana-Hernández
2,4 and
Lucas F. Borkel
2
1
Unit of Toxicology, Clinical Science Department, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Paseo Blas Cabrera Felipe s/n, CP 35016 Canary Islands, Spain
2
Asociación Científica Psicodélica, CP 35300 Canary Islands, Spain
3
Asociación Canaria para el Desarrollo de la Salud a través de la Atención, CP 35007 Canary Islands, Spain
4
Faculty of Psychology, Universidad del Atlántico Medio, CP 35017 Canary Islands, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Toxics 2023, 11(2), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020148
Submission received: 15 January 2023 / Revised: 30 January 2023 / Accepted: 31 January 2023 / Published: 3 February 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Identification of Drug Abuse)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Psychedelics are experiencing a strong renaissance and will soon be incorporated into clinical practice. However, there is uncertainty about how much harm they can cause at what doses. This review aimed to collect information on the health-hazardous doses of psychedelic substances, to be aware of the risks to which patients may be subjected. We focused on ergolamines, simple tryptamines, and phenylethylamines. We reviewed articles published in major medical and scientific databases. Studies reporting toxic or lethal doses in humans and animals were included. We followed PRISMA criteria for revisions. We identified 3032 manuscripts for inclusion. Of these, 33 were ultimately useful and gave relevant information about effects associated with high psychedelics doses. Despite having different molecular structures and different mechanisms of action, psychedelics are effective at very low doses, are not addictive, and are harmful at extremely high doses. For LSD and psilocybin, no dose has been established above which the lives of users are endangered. In contrast, MDMA appears to be the most dangerous substance, although reports are biased by recreational missuses. It seems that it is not only the dose that makes the poison. In the case of psychedelics, the set and setting make the poison.
Keywords: psychedelics; LSD; MDMA; mescaline; psilocybin; lethal dose; overdose; toxicology psychedelics; LSD; MDMA; mescaline; psilocybin; lethal dose; overdose; toxicology

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Henríquez-Hernández, L.A.; Rojas-Hernández, J.; Quintana-Hernández, D.J.; Borkel, L.F. Hofmann vs. Paracelsus: Do Psychedelics Defy the Basics of Toxicology?—A Systematic Review of the Main Ergolamines, Simple Tryptamines, and Phenylethylamines. Toxics 2023, 11, 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020148

AMA Style

Henríquez-Hernández LA, Rojas-Hernández J, Quintana-Hernández DJ, Borkel LF. Hofmann vs. Paracelsus: Do Psychedelics Defy the Basics of Toxicology?—A Systematic Review of the Main Ergolamines, Simple Tryptamines, and Phenylethylamines. Toxics. 2023; 11(2):148. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020148

Chicago/Turabian Style

Henríquez-Hernández, Luis Alberto, Jaime Rojas-Hernández, Domingo J. Quintana-Hernández, and Lucas F. Borkel. 2023. "Hofmann vs. Paracelsus: Do Psychedelics Defy the Basics of Toxicology?—A Systematic Review of the Main Ergolamines, Simple Tryptamines, and Phenylethylamines" Toxics 11, no. 2: 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020148

APA Style

Henríquez-Hernández, L. A., Rojas-Hernández, J., Quintana-Hernández, D. J., & Borkel, L. F. (2023). Hofmann vs. Paracelsus: Do Psychedelics Defy the Basics of Toxicology?—A Systematic Review of the Main Ergolamines, Simple Tryptamines, and Phenylethylamines. Toxics, 11(2), 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020148

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop