The Mode of Grass Supply to Dairy Cows Impacts on Fatty Acid and Antioxidant Profile of Milk
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Experimental Design and Treatments
2.2. Experimental Procedure
2.3. Sampling and Chemical Analyses
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Chilliard, Y.; Glasser, F.; Enjalbert, F.; Ferlay, A.; Bernard, L.F.; Rouel, J.; Doreau, M. Diet, rumen biohydrogenation and nutritional quality of cow and goat milk fat. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2007, 109, 828–855. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luykx, D.M.; Van Ruth, S.M. An overview of analytical methods for determining the geographical origin of food products. Food Chem. 2008, 107, 897–911. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Valenti, B.; Martin, B.; Andueza, D.; Leroux, C.; Labonne, C.; Lahalle, F.; Larroque, H.; Brunschwig, P.; Lecomte, C.; Brochard, M.; et al. Infrared spectroscopic methods for the discrimination of cows’ milk according to the feeding system, cow breed and altitude of the dairy farm. Int. Dairy J. 2013, 32, 26–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Monahan, F.J.; Moloney, A.P.; Downey, G.; Dunne, P.G.; Schmidt, O.; Harrison, S.M. Authenticity and traceability of grassland production and products. Grassl. Sci. Eur. 2010, 401–414. [Google Scholar]
- Morales-Almaráz, E.; Soldado, A.; González, A.; Martínez-Fernández, A.; Domínguez-Vara, I.A.; de la Roza-Delgado, B.; Vicente, F. Improving the fatty acid profile of dairy cow milk by combining grazing with feeding of total mixed ration. J. Dairy Res. 2010, 77, 225–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morales-Almaráz, E.; de la Roza-Delgado, B.; González, A.; Soldado, A.; Rodríguez, M.L.; Peláez, M.; Vicente, F. Effect of feeding system on unsaturated fatty acid level in milk of dairy cows. Renew. Agric. Food Syst. 2011, 26, 224–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kusche, D.; Kuhnt, K.; Ruebesam, K.; Rohrer, C.; Nierop, A.F.; Jahreis, G.; Baars, T. Fatty acid profiles and antioxidants of organic and conventional milk from low-and high-input systems during outdoor period. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2015, 95, 529–539. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Elgersma, A.; Søegaard, K.; Jensen, S.K. Fatty acids, α-tocopherol, β-carotene, and lutein contents in forage legumes, forbs, and a grass–clover mixture. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2013, 61, 11913–11920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Moloney, A.P.; Monahan, F.J.; Schmidt, O. Quality and authenticity of grassland products. Grassl. Sci. Eur. 2014, 19, 509–520. [Google Scholar]
- Belury, M.A. Dietary conjugated linoleic acid in health: Physiological effects and mechanisms of action. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 2002, 22, 505–531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hernández-Ortega, M.; Martínez-Fernández, A.; Soldado, A.; González, A.; Arriaga-Jordán, C.M.; Argamentería, A.; de la Roza-Delgado, B.; Vicente, F. Effect of total mixed ration composition and daily grazing pattern on milk production, composition and fatty acids profile of dairy cows. J. Dairy Res. 2014, 81, 471–478. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schwendel, B.H.; Wester, T.J.; Morel, P.C.H.; Tavendale, M.H.; Deadman, C.; Shadbolt, N.M.; Otter, D.E. Organic and conventionally produced milk-An evaluation of factors influencing milk composition. J. Dairy Sci. 2015, 98, 721–746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Morales-Almaráz, E.; de la Roza-Delgado, B.; Soldado, A.; Martínez-Fernández, A.; González, A.; Domínguez-Vara, I.A.; Vicente, F. Parity and grazing-time effects on milk fatty acid profile in dairy cows. Anim. Prod. Sci. 2018, 58, 1233–1238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vicente, F.; Santiago, C.; Jiménez-Calderón, J.D.; Martínez-Fernández, A. Capacity of milk composition to identify the feeding system used to feed dairy cows. J. Dairy Res. 2017, 84, 254–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bendich, A. Physiological role of antioxidants in the immune system. J. Dairy Sci. 1993, 76, 2789–2794. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schneider, C. Chemistry and biology of vitamin E. Mol. Nut. Food Res. 2005, 49, 7–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Willcox, J.K.; Ash, S.L.; Catignani, G.L. Antioxidants and prevention of chronic disease. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2004, 44, 275–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tijerina-Sáenz, A.; Innis, S.M.; Kitts, D.D. Antioxidant capacity of human milk and its association with vitamins A and E and fatty acid composition. Acta Paediatr. 2009, 98, 1793–1798. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Martin, B.; Fedele, V.; Ferlay, A.; Grolier, P.; Rock, E.; Gruffat, D.; Chilliard, Y. Effects of grass-based diets on the content of micronutrients and fatty acids in bovine and caprine dairy products. Grassl. Sci. Eur. 2004, 9, 876–886. [Google Scholar]
- Alothman, M.; Hogan, S.A.; Hennessy, D.; Dillon, P.; Kilcawley, K.N.; O’Donovan, M.; Tobin, J.; Fenelon, M.A.; O’Callaghan, T.F. The “Grass-Fed” milk story: Understanding the impact of pasture feeding on the composition and quality of bovine milk. Foods 2019, 8, 350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Havemose, M.S.; Weisbjerg, M.R.; Bredie, W.L.P.; Nielsen, J.H. Influence of feeding different types of roughage on the oxidative stability of milk. Int. Dairy J. 2004, 14, 563–570. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Agabriel, C.; Cornu, A.; Journal, C.; Sibra, C.; Grolier, P.; Martin, B. Tanker milk variability according to farm feeding practices: Vitamins A and E, carotenoids, color, and terpenoids. J. Dairy Sci. 2007, 90, 4774–4896. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Soder, K.J.; Rotz, C.A. Economic and environmental impact of four levels of concentrate supplementation in grazing dairy herds. J. Dairy Sci. 2001, 84, 2560–2572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peyraud, J.L.; Delagarde, R. Managing variations in dairy cow nutrient supply under grazing. Animals 2013, 7, 57–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hanson, J.C.; Johnson, D.M.; Lichtenberg, E.; Minegishi, K. Competitiveness of management-intensive grazing dairies in the mid-Atlantic region from 1995 to 2009. J. Dairy Sci. 2013, 96, 1894–1904. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Martínez-García, C.G.; Dorward, P.; Rehman, T. Factors influencing adoption of improved grassland management by small-scale dairy farmers in central Mexico and the implications for future research on smallholder adoption in developing countries. Livest. Sci. 2013, 152, 228–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Velarde-Guillén, J.; Estrada-Flores, J.G.; Rayas-Amor, A.A.; Vicente, F.; Martínez-Fernández, A.; Heredia-Nava, D.; Celis-Alvarez, M.D.; Aguirre-Ugarte, I.K.; Galindo-González, E.; Arriaga-Jordán, C.M. Supplementation of dairy cows with commercial concentrate or ground maize grain under cut-and-carry or grazing of cultivated pastures in small-scale systems in the highlands of central Mexico. Anim. Prod. Sci. 2019, 59, 368–375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Macoon, B.; Sollenberger, L.E.; Moore, J.E.; Staples, C.R.; Fike, J.H.; Portier, K.M. Comparison of three techniques for estimating the forage intake of lactating dairy cows on pasture. J. Anim. Sci. 2003, 81, 2357–2366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- NRC. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, 7th ed.; National Academic Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Sukhija, P.S.; Palmquist, D.L. Rapid method for determination of total fatty acid content and composition of feedstuffs and feces. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1988, 36, 1202–1206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chauveau-Duriot, B.; Doreau, M.; Noziere, P.; Graulet, B. Simultaneous quantification of carotenoids, retinol, and tocopherols in forages, bovine plasma, and milk: Validation of a novel UPLC method. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2010, 397, 777–790. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gentili, A.; Caretti, F.; Bellante, S.; Ventura, S.; Canepari, S.; Curini, R. Comprehensive profiling of carotenoids and fat-soluble vitamins in milk from different animal species by LC-DAD-MS/MS hyphenation. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2013, 61, 1628–1639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing; R Core Team: Vienna, Austria, 2018; Available online: https://www.R-project.org/ (accessed on 16 July 2020).
- Álvarez, A.; del Corral, J.; Solís, D.; Pérez, J.A. Does intensification improve the economic efficiency of dairy farms? J. Dairy Sci. 2008, 91, 3693–3698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Allen, M.S. Effects of diet on short-term regulation of feed intake by lactating dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 2000, 83, 1598–1624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bargo, F.; Muller, L.D.; Delahoy, J.E.; Cassidy, T.W. Performance of high producing dairy cows with three different feeding systems combining pasture and total mixed rations. J. Dairy Sci. 2002, 85, 2948–2963. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mohammed, R.; Stanton, C.S.; Kennelly, J.J.; Kramer, J.K.G.; Mee, J.F.; Glimm, D.R.; O’Donovan, M.; Murphy, J.J. Grazing cows are more efficient than zero-grazed and grass silage-fed cows in milk rumenic acid production. J. Dairy Sci. 2009, 92, 3874–3893. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bargo, F.; Muller, L.D.; Kolver, E.S.; Delahoy, J.E. Production and digestion of supplemented dairy cows on pasture. J. Dairy Sci. 2003, 86, 1–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lahlou, M.N.; Kanneganti, R.; Massingill, L.J.; Broderick, G.A.; Park, Y.; Pariza, M.W.; Fergunson, J.D.; Wu, Z. Grazing increases the concentration of CLA in dairy cow milk. Animals 2014, 8, 1191–1200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Vahmani, P.; Glover, K.E.; Fredeen, A.H. Effects of pasture versus confinement and marine oil supplementation on the expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism in mammary, liver, and adipose tissues of lactating dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 2014, 97, 4174–4183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oba, M.; Allen, M.S. Effects of brown midrib 3 mutation in corn silage on productivity of dairy cows fed two levels of dietary NDF: 1. Feeding behavior and nutrient utilization. J. Dairy Sci. 2000, 83, 1333–1341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Couvreur, S.; Hurtaud, C.; Lopez, C.; Delaby, L.; Peyraud, J.L. The Linear Relationship between the Proportion of Fresh Grass in the Cow Diet, Milk Fatty Acid Composition, and Butter Properties. J. Dairy Sci. 2006, 89, 1956–1969. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lemosquet, S.; Delamaire, E.; Lapierre, H.; Blum, J.W.; Peyraud, J.L. Effects of glucose, propionic acid, and nonessential amino acids on glucose metabolism and milk yield in Holstein dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 2009, 92, 3244–3257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- El-Zaiat, H.M.; Kholif, A.E.; Mohamed, D.A.; Matloup, O.H.; Anele, U.Y.; Sallam, S.M. Enhancing lactational performance of Holstein dairy cows under commercial production: Malic acid as an option. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2019, 99, 885–892. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Argamentería, A.; Vicente, F.; Martínez-Fernández, A.; Cueto, M.A.; de la Roza-Delgado, B. Influence of partial total mixed rations amount on the grass voluntary intake by dairy cows. Grassl. Sci. Eur. 2006, 11, 161–163. [Google Scholar]
- Capuano, E.; Boerrigter-Eenling, R.; Elgersma, A.; Van Ruth, S.M. Effect of fresh grass feeding, pasture grazing and organic/biodynamic farming on bovine milk triglyceride profile and implications for authentication. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2014, 238, 573–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frétin, M.; Ferlay, A.; Verdier-Metz, I.; Fournier, F.; Montel, M.C.; Farruggia, A.; Delbes, C.; Martin, B. The effects of low-input grazing systems and milk pasteurisation on the chemical composition, microbial communities, and sensory properties of uncooked pressed cheeses. Int. Dairy J. 2017, 64, 56–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kalač, P.; Samková, E. The effects of feeding various forages on fatty acid composition of bovine milk fat: A review. Czech J. Anim. Sci. 2010, 55, 521–537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Parodi, P.W. Milk fat in human nutrition. Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 2004, 59, 3–59. [Google Scholar]
- Elgersma, A.; Tamminga, S.; Ellen, G. Modifying milk composition through forage. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2006, 131, 207–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Troegeler-Meynadier, A.; Bret-Bennis, L.; Enjalbert, F. Rates and efficiencies of reactions of ruminal biohydrogenation of linoleic acid according to pH and polyunsaturated fatty acids concentrations. Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 2006, 46, 713–724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Capuano, E.; Van der Veer, G.; Boerrigter-Eenling, R.; Elgersma, A.; Rademaker, J.; Sterian, A.; Van Ruth, S.M. Verification of fresh grass feeding, pasture grazing and organic farming by cows farm milk fatty acid profile. Food Chem. 2014, 164, 234–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Botana, A.; González, L.; Dagnac, T.; Resch-Zafra, C.; Pereira-Crespo, S.; Veiga, M.; Lorenzana, R. Fatty acids and lipo-soluble antioxidants in milk from dairy farms in the Atlantic area of Spain. Grassl. Sci. Eur. 2018, 23, 712–714. [Google Scholar]
- Butler, G.; Nielsen, J.H.; Slots, T.; Seal, C.; Eyre, M.D.; Sanderson, R.; Leifert, C. Fatty acid and fat soluble antioxidant concentrations in milk from high-and low-input conventional and organic systems: Seasonal variation. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2008, 88, 1431–1441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Średnicka-Tober, D.; Barański, M.; Seal, C.J.; Sanderson, R.; Benbrook, C.; Steinshamn, H.; Gromadzka-Ostrowska, J.; Rembiałkowska, E.; Skwarło-Sońta, K.; Eyre, M.; et al. Higher PUFA and n-3 PUFA, conjugated linoleic acid, α-tocopherol and iron, but lower iodine and selenium concentrations in organic milk: A systematic literature review and meta and redundancy analyses. Br. J. Nutr. 2016, 115, 1043–1060. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cichosz, G.; Czeczot, H.; Ambroziak, A.; Bielecka, M.M. Natural antioxidants in milk and dairy products. Int. J. Dairy Technol. 2017, 70, 165–178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sunarić, S.; Živković, J.; Pavlović, R.; Kocić, G.; Trutić, N.; Živanović, S. Assessment of α-tocopherol content in cow and goat milk from the Serbian market. Hemijskaindustrija 2012, 66, 559–566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nozière, P.; Graulet, B.; Lucas, A.; Martin, B.; Grolier, P.; Doreau, M. Carotenoids for ruminants: From forages to dairy products. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2006, 131, 418–450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Item | Grazing | Zero-Grazing | Grass Silage | Concentrate |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dry matter (DM, %) | 21.18 | 24.04 | 30.52 | 87.71 |
Organic matter (% DM) | 87.45 | 91.15 | 89.47 | 91.43 |
Crude protein (% DM) | 15.12 | 10.86 | 9.86 | 20.33 |
Neutral detergent fiber (% DM) | 57.40 | 58.97 | 67.87 | 19.31 |
Metabolizable energy (MJ/kg DM) | 9.56 | 9.29 | 8.27 | 12.74 |
Fatty Acids (g/100 g fatty acids) | ||||
10:1 cis-9 | 0.28 | NA 1 | 0.06 | 0.02 |
11:0 | 0.21 | NA | 0.84 | 0.01 |
12:0 | 0.70 | NA | 1.12 | 0.18 |
13:0 | 0.86 | NA | 0.88 | 0.01 |
14:0 | 0.62 | NA | 0.80 | 0.49 |
15:0 | 0.14 | NA | 0.33 | 0.05 |
15:1 cis-10 | 1.33 | NA | 1.14 | 0.00 |
16:0 | 18.19 | NA | 19.97 | 25.33 |
16:1 cis-7 + 16:1 trans-9 | 2.31 | NA | 1.43 | 0.05 |
16:1 cis-9 | 0.27 | NA | 1.16 | 0.14 |
17:0 | 0.28 | NA | 0.51 | 0.10 |
18:0 | 1.98 | NA | 2.61 | 2.77 |
18:1 cis-9 | 3.74 | NA | 8.98 | 28.09 |
18:2 cis-9 cis-12 | 16.50 | NA | 28.22 | 39.15 |
18:3 cis-6 cis-9 cis-12 | 0.11 | NA | 0.19 | 0.05 |
18:3 cis-9 cis-12 cis-15 | 49.05 | NA | 26.76 | 2.37 |
20:0 | 0.73 | NA | 0.87 | 0.29 |
20:1 cis-9 | 0.24 | NA | 0.32 | 0.25 |
20:1 cis-11 | 0.31 | NA | 0.50 | 0.35 |
21:0 | 0.17 | NA | 0.32 | 0.05 |
22:0 | 1.08 | NA | 1.49 | 0.13 |
23:0 | 0.15 | NA | 0.35 | 0.03 |
24:0 | 0.65 | NA | 1.05 | 0.09 |
24:1 | 0.11 | NA | 0.10 | 0.01 |
∑ SFA 2 | 25.75 | NA | 31.14 | 29.52 |
∑ MUFA 3 | 8.58 | NA | 13.69 | 28.91 |
∑ PUFA 4 | 65.67 | NA | 55.17 | 41.56 |
PUFA to SFA ratio | 2.55 | NA | 1.77 | 1.41 |
n-6 to n-3 ratio | 0.34 | NA | 1.05 | 16.54 |
Antioxidants (mg/kg DM) | ||||
Neoxanthin | 14.97 | NA | 0.44 | 0.04 |
Violaxanthin | 13.28 | NA | 0.29 | <LQ 5 |
Antheraxanthin | 1.58 | NA | 0.95 | 0.01 |
Lutein | 62.45 | NA | 23.79 | 0.43 |
Zeaxanthin | 3.21 | NA | 1.49 | 0.07 |
Β-Cryptoxanthin | 0.57 | NA | 0.18 | 0.04 |
∑-trans-β-Carotenes | 30.81 | NA | 7.17 | 0.09 |
9-cis-β-Carotenes | 6.28 | NA | 2.13 | 0.06 |
13-cis-β-Carotenes | 3.44 | NA | 0.82 | 0.08 |
α-tocopherol | 9.64 | NA | 8.45 | 2.83 |
γ-tocopherol | 1.60 | NA | 1.03 | 4.29 |
Item | Grazing | Zero-Grazing | Grass Silage | RSD | p2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Forage (kg DM/d) | 14.34 a | 11.54 b | 10.54 b | 2.40 | *** |
Concentrate (kg DM/d) | 3.75 | 3.66 | 3.56 | 0.62 | NS |
Milk (kg/d) | 23.4 a | 18.1 b | 14.0 c | 3,57 | *** |
Fat (g/kg) | 35.8 | 33.7 | 36.1 | 3.18 | NS |
Protein (g/kg) | 32.1 a | 29.1 b | 27.8 b | 2.90 | *** |
Lactose (g/kg) | 45.7 a | 41.0 b | 41.7 b | 2.56 | *** |
SNF 1 (g/kg) | 83.9 a | 77.8 b | 76.3 b | 3.79 | *** |
Urea (mg/kg) | 281 a | 200 b | 215 b | 40.3 | *** |
Item (g/100 g Fatty Acids) | Grazing | Zero-Grazing | Grass Silage | SD 1 | p2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
4:0 | 5.57 | 5.36 | 5.31 | 0.286 | NS |
6:0 | 1.84 a | 1.89 a | 1.71 b | 0.053 | * |
8:0 | 0.97 | 0.99 | 0.85 | 0.061 | NS |
10:0 | 2.07 | 2.11 | 1.71 | 0.223 | NS |
10:1 cis-9 | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.005 | NS |
11:0 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.009 | NS |
12:0 | 2.14 | 2.45 | 1.97 | 0.271 | NS |
13:0 | 0.09 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.009 | NS |
14:0 | 9.82 | 10.14 | 8.98 | 0.699 | NS |
14:0 iso | 0.22 | 0.20 | 0.21 | 0.010 | NS |
14:1 cis-9 | 1.00 | 1.13 | 0.92 | 0.104 | NS |
15:0 | 1.21 | 1.24 | 1.17 | 0.046 | NS |
15:0 iso | 0.46 | 0.47 | 0.42 | 0.035 | NS |
15:0 anteiso | 0.74 a | 0.71 a | 0.59 b | 0.040 | * |
15:1 cis-10 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.003 | NS |
16:0 | 27.86 | 30.73 | 29.94 | 1.031 | NS |
16:1 cis-9 | 1.80 | 2.17 | 2.20 | 0.180 | NS |
17:0 | 0.58 | 0.64 | 0.65 | 0.028 | NS |
18:0 | 9.89 | 9.57 | 8.85 | 0.746 | NS |
18:1 trans-6 + 18:1 trans-9 | 0.50 a | 0.41 b | 0.39 b | 0.024 | * |
18:1 trans-10 | 0.27 a | 0.21 b | 0.20 b | 0.025 | * |
18:1 trans-11 | 5.08 a | 2.77 b | 2.01 b | 0.745 | * |
18:1 trans-12 | 0.20 a | 0.15 b | 0.14 b | 0.015 | * |
18:1 cis-9 | 21.59 | 21.97 | 25.52 | 1.521 | NS |
18:1 cis-11 | 0.37 b | 0.44 b | 0.57 a | 0.051 | * |
18:1 cis-12 | 0.06 b | 0.06a b | 0.07 a | 0.004 | * |
18:2 tran-9 trans-12 | 0.07 a | 0.07 a | 0.05 b | 0.003 | ** |
18:2 cis-9, cis-12 | 1.16 b | 1.38 ab | 1.60 a | 0.124 | * |
18:2 cis-9 trans-11 (CLA 3) | 2.29 a | 1.37 b | 1.05 b | 0.218 | ** |
Other isomers CLA | 0.21 | 0.24 | 0.24 | 0.015 | NS |
18:3 cis-9 cis-12 cis-15 | 0.55 | 0.47 | 0.43 | 0.070 | NS |
18:3 cis-6 cis-9 cis-12 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.003 | NS |
20:0 | 0.21 b | 0.25 a | 0.27 a | 0.012 | ** |
20:3 | 0.15 b | 0.22 ab | 0.27 a | 0.030 | * |
20:5 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.006 | NS |
20:2 | 0.01 c | 0.02 b | 0.03 a | 0.001 | *** |
20:3 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.011 | NS |
20:4 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.004 | NS |
20:1 cis-11 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.006 | NS |
21:0 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.005 | NS |
22:0 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.006 | NS |
22:5 | 0.10 b | 0.11 b | 0.15 a | 0.012 | * |
22:6 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.009 | NS |
22:2 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.013 | NS |
23:0 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.006 | NS |
24:0 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.006 | NS |
Sum of fatty acids | |||||
∑ SFA 4 | 62.81 | 65.07 | 62.49 | 1.479 | NS |
∑ BCFA 5 | 1.43 a | 1.39 a | 1.22 b | 0.053 | * |
∑ MUFA 6 | 30.98 | 29.43 | 32.16 | 1.417 | NS |
∑ cis-MUFA | 24.93 | 25.89 | 29.41 | 1.743 | NS |
∑ trans-MUFA | 6.05 a | 3.53 b | 2.75 b | 0.791 | * |
∑ PUFA 7 | 4.78 | 4.11 | 4.13 | 0.271 | NS |
∑ n-6 | 1.45 b | 1.70 ab | 1.92 a | 0.142 | * |
∑ n-3 | 0.83 | 0.79 | 1.00 | 0.062 | NS |
Ratios | |||||
PUFA to SFA | 0.08 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.007 | NS |
UFA to SFA | 0.57 | 0.52 | 0.58 | 0.037 | NS |
18:1 trans-11 to 18:1 trans-10 | 18.34 a | 13.08 b | 10.35 b | 1.912 | * |
n-6 to n-3 | 1.77 | 2.17 | 2.10 | 0.189 | NS |
Item (µg/L Milk) | Grazing | Zero-Grazing | Grass Silage | SD 1 | p2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Retinol | 855 | 852 | 827 | 202.6 | NS |
α-Tocopherol | 1189 | 962 | 1068 | 237.5 | NS |
γ-Tocopherol | 17.8 | 19.9 | 23.3 | 3.50 | NS |
Lutein | 21.9 a | 15.5 b | 9.1c | 3.19 | ** |
Zeaxanthin | 1.19 | 0.42 | 0.47 | 0.332 | NS |
β-Cryptoxanthin | 3.13 | 1.64 | 1.55 | 1.031 | NS |
All-trans-β-Carotene | 255 | 184 | 179 | 45.6 | NS |
9-cis-β-Carotene | 1.73 | 2.05 | 1.60 | 0.775 | NS |
13-cis-β-Carotene | 9.52 | 7.08 | 6.82 | 1.540 | NS |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
De La Torre-Santos, S.; Royo, L.J.; Martínez-Fernández, A.; Chocarro, C.; Vicente, F. The Mode of Grass Supply to Dairy Cows Impacts on Fatty Acid and Antioxidant Profile of Milk. Foods 2020, 9, 1256. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091256
De La Torre-Santos S, Royo LJ, Martínez-Fernández A, Chocarro C, Vicente F. The Mode of Grass Supply to Dairy Cows Impacts on Fatty Acid and Antioxidant Profile of Milk. Foods. 2020; 9(9):1256. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091256
Chicago/Turabian StyleDe La Torre-Santos, Senén, Luis J. Royo, Adela Martínez-Fernández, Cristina Chocarro, and Fernando Vicente. 2020. "The Mode of Grass Supply to Dairy Cows Impacts on Fatty Acid and Antioxidant Profile of Milk" Foods 9, no. 9: 1256. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091256