Vitamin D Intake in a Population-Based Sample of Young Polish Women, Its Major Sources and the Possibility of Meeting the Recommendations
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Group
2.2. Data Gathering
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Region | Number (%) of Participants | Number (%) of Polish Women Aged 15–30 Living in Each Region * | Voivodeship (within Region) | Number (%) of Participants | Number (%) of Polish Women Aged 15–30 Living in Each Voivodeship * |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Central | 200 (19.4) | 699,529 (19.5) | Łódź | 60 (5.8) | 219,282 (6.1) |
Masovian | 140 (13.6) | 480,247 (13.4) | |||
Southern | 200 (19.4) | 733,949 (20.4) | Lesser Poland | 80 (7.8) | 335,660 (9.3) |
Silesian | 120 (11.6) | 398,289 (11.1) | |||
Eastern | 192 (18.6) | 661,160 (18.4) | Lublin | 52 (5.0) | 207,901 (5.8) |
Subcarpathian | 60 (5.8) | 218,962 (6.1) | |||
Podlaskie | 40 (3.9) | 116,917 (3.3) | |||
Holy Cross | 40 (3.9) | 117,380 (3.3) | |||
North- Western | 175 (17.0) | 584,007 (16.3) | Lubusz | 35 (3.4) | 94,611 (2.6) |
Greater Poland | 90 (8.7) | 333,275 (9.3) | |||
West Pomeranian | 50 (4.8) | 156,121 (4.3) | |||
South- Western | 100 (9.7) | 348,193 (9.7) | Lower Silesian | 70 (6.8) | 256,906 (7.2) |
Opole | 30 (2.9) | 91,287 (2.5) | |||
Northern | 165 (16.0) | 563,966 (15.7) | Kuyavian-Pomeranian | 60 (5.8) | 200,291 (5.6) |
Pomeranian | 65 (6.3) | 222,551 (6.2) | |||
Warmian-Masurian | 40 (3.9) | 141,124 (3.9) | |||
p ** | 0.9665 | p ** | 0.7654 |
Vitamin D Source | Mean ± SD (µg) | Median (Min–Max) (µg) |
---|---|---|
Total intake from food | 3.85 ± 2.96 | 3.09 * (0.00–24.52) |
Salmon, rainbow trout, herring, eel | 0.51 ± 1.07 | 0.26 * (0.00–12.75) |
Halibut, mackerel, brook trout, sole, tuna | 0.10 ± 0.24 | 0.06 * (0.00–4.17) |
Cod, flounder, plaice, pollock, hake | 0.02 ± 0.05 | 0.00 * (0.00–0.83) |
Herring, sardine and tuna products | 0.59 ± 0.91 | 0.41 * (0.00–12.36) |
Other fish products | 0.02 ± 0.04 | 0.00 * (0.00–0.47) |
Dairy products | 0.51 ± 0.44 | 0.40 * (0.00–4.12) |
Eggs | 0.83 ± 1.04 | 0.50 * (0.00–11.50) |
Meat and meat products | 0.64 ± 0.64 | 0.49 * (0.00–5.37) |
Cereals | 0.17 ± 0.18 | 0.13 * (0.00–2.21) |
Fats | 0.47 ± 1.12 | 0.09 * (0.00–13.60) |
Fish Product Group | Mean ± SD (Servings/Month) | Median (Min–Max) (Servings/Month) |
---|---|---|
Salmon, rainbow trout, herring, eel | 1.97 ± 4.17 | 1.00 * (0.00–50.00) |
Halibut, mackerel, brook trout, sole, tuna | 1.19 ± 3.06 | 1.00 * (0.00–50.00) |
Cod, flounder, plaice, pollock, hake | 1.19 ± 3.53 | 0.00 * (0.00–50.00) |
Herring, sardine and tuna products | 1.43 ± 2.22 | 1.00 * (0.00–30.00) |
Other fish products | 0.58 ± 1.19 | 0.00 * (0.00–15.00) |
Vitamin D Source | p | R |
---|---|---|
Salmon, rainbow trout, herring, eel | <0.0001 | 0.4914 |
Halibut, mackerel, brook trout, sole, tuna | <0.0001 | 0.3641 |
Cod, flounder, plaice, pollock, hake | <0.0001 | 0.2023 |
Herring, sardine and tuna products | <0.0001 | 0.5314 |
Other fish products | <0.0001 | 0.3007 |
Dairy products | <0.0001 | 0.4877 |
Eggs | <0.0001 | 0.5989 |
Meat and meat products | <0.0001 | 0.4587 |
Cereals | <0.0001 | 0.3146 |
Fats | <0.0001 | 0.3918 |
Food Group | p | R |
---|---|---|
Salmon, rainbow trout, herring, eel | <0.0001 | 0.4790 |
Halibut, mackerel, brook trout, sole, tuna | <0.0001 | 0.3694 |
Cod, flounder, plaice, pollock, hake | <0.0001 | 0.2083 |
Herring, sardine and tuna products | <0.0001 | 0.5314 |
Other fish products | <0.0001 | 0.3007 |
Fish Species | Predominantly Choosing Specific Fish Species | Mean ± SD (µg) | Median (Min–Max) (µg) | Correlation between Vitamin D Intake from Fish and Total Dietary Intake | p for Sub-Group Comparison | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
p | R | Vitamin D from Fish | Total Dietary Vitamin D | ||||
Salmon | Choosing (n = 591) | 4.21 ± 3.07 | 3.31 * (0.52–24.52) | <0.0001 | 0.6839 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
Not choosing (n = 441) | 3.37 ± 2.73 | 2.65 * (0.00–19.94) | <0.0001 | 0.6305 | |||
Rainbow trout | Choosing (n = 183) | 4.65 ± 3.26 | 3.59 * (0.52–19.37) | <0.0001 | 0.7157 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
Not choosing (n = 849) | 3.68 ± 2.86 | 2.90 * (0.00–24.52) | <0.0001 | 0.6603 | |||
Herring | Choosing (n = 493) | 4.56 ± 3.18 | 3.76 * (0.12–24.52) | <0.0001 | 0.6791 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
Not choosing (n = 539) | 3.20 ± 2.57 | 2.55 * (0.00–16.06) | <0.0001 | 0.5870 | |||
Eel | Choosing (n = 8) | 4.36 ± 4.37 | 3.14 * (1.47–14.81) | 0.6514 | −0.1905 | 0.1733 | 0.9416 |
Not choosing (n = 1024) | 3.85 ± 2.94 | 3.09 * (0.00–24.52) | <0.0001 | 0.6821 |
Predominantly Choosing Specific Fish Species as a Predictor | Odds Ratio | 95% Confidence Interval | Wald Stat | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model developed for the level of 5 µg | Salmon | 1.5793 | 1.1478–2.1730 | 7.7413 | 0.0050 |
Rainbow trout | 1.5851 | 1.0942–2.2962 | 5.8315 | 0.0148 | |
Herring | 2.5356 | 1.8544–3.4670 | 33.3889 | <0.0001 | |
Eel | 0.4797 | 0.0580–3.9655 | 0.4567 | 0.4954 | |
Model developed for the level of 10 µg | Salmon | 1.3765 | 0.7495–2.5278 | 1.0615 | 0.3029 |
Rainbow trout | 1.6671 | 0.8599–3.2317 | 2.2898 | 0.1302 | |
Herring | 1.9413 | 1.0696–3.5235 | 4.7570 | 0.0292 | |
Eel | 2.8019 | 0.3307–23.7382 | 0.8931 | 0.3446 |
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Utri, Z.; Głąbska, D. Vitamin D Intake in a Population-Based Sample of Young Polish Women, Its Major Sources and the Possibility of Meeting the Recommendations. Foods 2020, 9, 1482. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9101482
Utri Z, Głąbska D. Vitamin D Intake in a Population-Based Sample of Young Polish Women, Its Major Sources and the Possibility of Meeting the Recommendations. Foods. 2020; 9(10):1482. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9101482
Chicago/Turabian StyleUtri, Zofia, and Dominika Głąbska. 2020. "Vitamin D Intake in a Population-Based Sample of Young Polish Women, Its Major Sources and the Possibility of Meeting the Recommendations" Foods 9, no. 10: 1482. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9101482
APA StyleUtri, Z., & Głąbska, D. (2020). Vitamin D Intake in a Population-Based Sample of Young Polish Women, Its Major Sources and the Possibility of Meeting the Recommendations. Foods, 9(10), 1482. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9101482