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Volume 14
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10.3390/foods14132173
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Impact Dynamics and Freezing Performance of Porcine Bile Droplets on Horizontal Cold Substrates: Towards Advanced and Sustainable Food Processing

by
Xinkang Hu
1,2,3,
Bo Zhang
4,*,
Libang Chen
1,
Zhenpeng Zhang
1,
Huanhuan Zhang
1,
Xintong Du
4,
Xu Wang
1,
Lulu Zhang
1,
Tao Yang
1 and
Chundu Wu
1,2,3,4,*
1
School of Agricultural Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
2
Key Laboratory for Theory and Technology of Intelligent Agricultural Machinery and Equipment of Jiangsu University, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
3
Jiangsu Province and Education Ministry Co-Sponsored Synergistic Innovation Center of Modern Agricultural Equipment, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
4
School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Foods 2025, 14(13), 2173; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14132173 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 19 May 2025 / Revised: 15 June 2025 / Accepted: 20 June 2025 / Published: 21 June 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development of Green and Advanced Food Freezing/Anti-Freezing Technologies)
Versions Notes

Abstract

With the development of the agro-processing industry, the efficient cryogenic treatment and resource utilization of porcine bile—a high-value byproduct—has received increasing attention. This study investigates the dynamic behaviour and freezing characteristics of porcine bile droplets upon impact on cold substrates under varying conditions of surface temperature (−10 °C to −20 °C) and impact velocity (0.18–0.59 m/s). The effects of droplet size, dimensionless numbers (Weber, Reynolds, Bond, Ohnesorge, and Prandtl), and thermal gradients were systematically analyzed. A thermoelectric cooling substrate combined with high-speed imaging was used to quantitatively characterize the spreading ratio, retraction ratio, and freezing time of droplets. The results show that the maximum spreading ratio increases with higher impact velocity but decreases with lower substrate temperature. Lower substrate temperatures significantly shorten the freezing time, with a maximum reduction of up to 45%, particularly for smaller droplets. Droplets with high Weber numbers (We > 3) form flattened ice layers with preserved retraction patterns, while those with low Weber numbers (We < 1) generate smooth, hemispherical ice caps. For the first time, the thermophysical properties of porcine bile were incorporated into the framework of droplet impact dynamics on cryogenic surfaces. The findings reveal multiscale freezing mechanisms of biological fluids at low temperatures and provide a theoretical basis for optimizing processes such as freeze-drying and cryogenic sterilization in agro-product processing.
Keywords: agro-byproducts processing; cryogenic technology; impact dynamics; freezing behaviour; multiphysical interactions agro-byproducts processing; cryogenic technology; impact dynamics; freezing behaviour; multiphysical interactions

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Hu, X.; Zhang, B.; Chen, L.; Zhang, Z.; Zhang, H.; Du, X.; Wang, X.; Zhang, L.; Yang, T.; Wu, C. Impact Dynamics and Freezing Performance of Porcine Bile Droplets on Horizontal Cold Substrates: Towards Advanced and Sustainable Food Processing. Foods 2025, 14, 2173. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14132173

AMA Style

Hu X, Zhang B, Chen L, Zhang Z, Zhang H, Du X, Wang X, Zhang L, Yang T, Wu C. Impact Dynamics and Freezing Performance of Porcine Bile Droplets on Horizontal Cold Substrates: Towards Advanced and Sustainable Food Processing. Foods. 2025; 14(13):2173. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14132173

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hu, Xinkang, Bo Zhang, Libang Chen, Zhenpeng Zhang, Huanhuan Zhang, Xintong Du, Xu Wang, Lulu Zhang, Tao Yang, and Chundu Wu. 2025. "Impact Dynamics and Freezing Performance of Porcine Bile Droplets on Horizontal Cold Substrates: Towards Advanced and Sustainable Food Processing" Foods 14, no. 13: 2173. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14132173

APA Style

Hu, X., Zhang, B., Chen, L., Zhang, Z., Zhang, H., Du, X., Wang, X., Zhang, L., Yang, T., & Wu, C. (2025). Impact Dynamics and Freezing Performance of Porcine Bile Droplets on Horizontal Cold Substrates: Towards Advanced and Sustainable Food Processing. Foods, 14(13), 2173. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14132173

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