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Volume 14
Issue 11
10.3390/foods14111923
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Okra Flower Polysaccharide–Pea Protein Conjugates Stabilized Pickering Emulsion Enhances Apigenin Stability, Bioaccessibility, and Intestinal Absorption In Vitro

by
Nuo Zhang
,
Jiale You
,
Xiaoli Yan
,
Hongchen Ji
,
Wenxuan Ji
,
Zhengyu Liu
,
Min Zhang
,
Peng Liu
,
Panpan Yue
,
Zain Ullah
,
Ting Zhao
* and
Liuqing Yang
*
School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Foods 2025, 14(11), 1923; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14111923
Submission received: 29 April 2025 / Revised: 26 May 2025 / Accepted: 26 May 2025 / Published: 28 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Food Physics and (Bio)Chemistry)
Versions Notes

Abstract

The covalent interactions of polysaccharides and protein can improve the emulsification and stability of Pickering emulsions, which are promising systems for the delivery of active substances. Okra flowers, which commonly represent agricultural waste, have high-viscosity polysaccharides that can be used for the development of protein–polysaccharide-based emulsifiers. In this study, the Maillard reaction was performed under optimized conditions (70 °C, pH 10, and 12 h) with a 1:1 mass ratio to generate pea protein isolate (PPI) –okra flower polysaccharide (OP) conjugate with the highest grafting degree of 22.80 ± 0.26%. The covalent binding of OP facilitated variations in the secondary and tertiary structures of PPI, decreasing its particle size (from 535.70 to 212.05 nm) and zeta-potential (from −30.37 to −44.39 mV). The emulsifying stability of the emulsion stabilized by OP-PPI conjugates was significantly improved due to the formation of a stable interfacial layer, showing an 80.39% increase compared to that of free PPI. Simultaneously, the emulsions prepared with the conjugates demonstrated excellent stability across diverse environmental conditions by enhancing the interaction between the lipid and protein. Moreover, the conjugate-stabilized emulsion not only exhibited a higher encapsulation efficiency of 91.52 ± 0.75% and superior protective efficacy but also controlled the release of apigenin (API) during gastrointestinal digestion, achieving the highest API bioaccessibility (74.58 ± 1.19%). Furthermore, it also contributed to the absorption and transmembrane transport efficiency of API in Caco-2 cells, improving its bioavailability. These results confirmed that covalent conjugation with OP is a valuable strategy for enhancing the emulsifying features of PPI. The PPI–OP emulsion delivery system holds great potential for nutrient delivery.
Keywords: covalent conjugation; okra flower polysaccharide; emulsion stability; controlled release; bioavailability covalent conjugation; okra flower polysaccharide; emulsion stability; controlled release; bioavailability

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zhang, N.; You, J.; Yan, X.; Ji, H.; Ji, W.; Liu, Z.; Zhang, M.; Liu, P.; Yue, P.; Ullah, Z.; et al. Okra Flower Polysaccharide–Pea Protein Conjugates Stabilized Pickering Emulsion Enhances Apigenin Stability, Bioaccessibility, and Intestinal Absorption In Vitro. Foods 2025, 14, 1923. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14111923

AMA Style

Zhang N, You J, Yan X, Ji H, Ji W, Liu Z, Zhang M, Liu P, Yue P, Ullah Z, et al. Okra Flower Polysaccharide–Pea Protein Conjugates Stabilized Pickering Emulsion Enhances Apigenin Stability, Bioaccessibility, and Intestinal Absorption In Vitro. Foods. 2025; 14(11):1923. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14111923

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Nuo, Jiale You, Xiaoli Yan, Hongchen Ji, Wenxuan Ji, Zhengyu Liu, Min Zhang, Peng Liu, Panpan Yue, Zain Ullah, and et al. 2025. "Okra Flower Polysaccharide–Pea Protein Conjugates Stabilized Pickering Emulsion Enhances Apigenin Stability, Bioaccessibility, and Intestinal Absorption In Vitro" Foods 14, no. 11: 1923. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14111923

APA Style

Zhang, N., You, J., Yan, X., Ji, H., Ji, W., Liu, Z., Zhang, M., Liu, P., Yue, P., Ullah, Z., Zhao, T., & Yang, L. (2025). Okra Flower Polysaccharide–Pea Protein Conjugates Stabilized Pickering Emulsion Enhances Apigenin Stability, Bioaccessibility, and Intestinal Absorption In Vitro. Foods, 14(11), 1923. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14111923

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