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Review

Levels, Toxic Effects, and Risk Assessment of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Foods: A Review

by
Yu-Shun Lu
1,2,
Jing Qiu
1,
Xi-Yan Mu
1,
Yong-Zhong Qian
1,† and
Lu Chen
1,*,†
1
Key Laboratory of Agro-Product Quality and Safety, Institute of Quality Standards and Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
2
Institute of Special Animal and Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130112, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Foods 2024, 13(4), 536; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13040536
Submission received: 28 December 2023 / Revised: 30 January 2024 / Accepted: 2 February 2024 / Published: 9 February 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants: Detection, Toxicity and Safety Risk Assessment)
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Abstract

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are naturally occurring secondary metabolites of plants. To date, more than 660 types of PAs have been identified from an estimated 6000 plants, and approximately 120 of these PAs are hepatotoxic. As a result of PAs being found in spices, herbal teas, honey, and milk, PAs are considered contaminants in foods, posing a potential risk to human health. Here, we summarize the chemical structure, toxic effects, levels, and regulation of PAs in different countries to provide a better understanding of their toxicity and risk assessment. With recent research on the risk assessment of PAs, this review also discusses the challenges facing this field, aiming to provide a scientific basis for PA toxicity research and safety assessment.
Keywords: pyrrolizidine alkaloids; food; PAs levels; hepatotoxicity; cytotoxicity; risk assessment pyrrolizidine alkaloids; food; PAs levels; hepatotoxicity; cytotoxicity; risk assessment

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MDPI and ACS Style

Lu, Y.-S.; Qiu, J.; Mu, X.-Y.; Qian, Y.-Z.; Chen, L. Levels, Toxic Effects, and Risk Assessment of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Foods: A Review. Foods 2024, 13, 536. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13040536

AMA Style

Lu Y-S, Qiu J, Mu X-Y, Qian Y-Z, Chen L. Levels, Toxic Effects, and Risk Assessment of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Foods: A Review. Foods. 2024; 13(4):536. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13040536

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lu, Yu-Shun, Jing Qiu, Xi-Yan Mu, Yong-Zhong Qian, and Lu Chen. 2024. "Levels, Toxic Effects, and Risk Assessment of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Foods: A Review" Foods 13, no. 4: 536. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13040536

APA Style

Lu, Y.-S., Qiu, J., Mu, X.-Y., Qian, Y.-Z., & Chen, L. (2024). Levels, Toxic Effects, and Risk Assessment of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Foods: A Review. Foods, 13(4), 536. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13040536

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