Author Contributions
Conceptualization, H.N.M. and S.V.; methodology, S.V., S.M., C.G.D. and H.N.M.; software, S.V.; validation, S.V. and S.M.; formal analysis, S.V.; investigation, S.V., C.G.D., H.N.M., S.M. and J.M.; resources, H.N.M.; data curation, S.V. and S.M.; writing—original draft preparation, S.V., S.M. and C.G.D.; writing—review and editing, S.V., H.N.M., S.M. and C.G.D.; visualization, H.N.M., S.M., C.G.D., J.M. and S.V.; supervision, H.N.M.; project administration, H.N.M.; funding acquisition, H.N.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Figure 1.
Cooked noodles based on F0 and FRN formulations added; F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 1.
Cooked noodles based on F0 and FRN formulations added; F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 2.
Pasting curve of RF, F0, and FRN samples. RF represents rice flour, F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 2.
Pasting curve of RF, F0, and FRN samples. RF represents rice flour, F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 3.
Dynamic rheology of gels of RF, F0, and FRN samples: (a) amplitude sweep test and (b) frequency sweep test. G′ and G″ are the storage and loss modulus, respectively. RF represents rice flour, F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 3.
Dynamic rheology of gels of RF, F0, and FRN samples: (a) amplitude sweep test and (b) frequency sweep test. G′ and G″ are the storage and loss modulus, respectively. RF represents rice flour, F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 4.
Rheological measurement of gels of RF, F0, and FRN samples: (a) creep recovery test and (b) steady shear analysis. RF represents rice flour, F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 4.
Rheological measurement of gels of RF, F0, and FRN samples: (a) creep recovery test and (b) steady shear analysis. RF represents rice flour, F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 5.
Microstructure of (a) RF at 1000×, (b) MLP at 1000×, (c) FRNs at 100×, and (d) FRNs at 500×. RF represents rice flour, MLP represents marjoram leaf powder, F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 5.
Microstructure of (a) RF at 1000×, (b) MLP at 1000×, (c) FRNs at 100×, and (d) FRNs at 500×. RF represents rice flour, MLP represents marjoram leaf powder, F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 6.
Cooking characteristics of F0 and FRNs: (a) CT, (b) SL, and (c) WAR. Different letters on the top of the bar show significant differences (p < 0.05). F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 6.
Cooking characteristics of F0 and FRNs: (a) CT, (b) SL, and (c) WAR. Different letters on the top of the bar show significant differences (p < 0.05). F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 7.
FTIR spectra of F0 and FRN samples. F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 7.
FTIR spectra of F0 and FRN samples. F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 8.
X-ray diffraction pattern of RF, MLP, F0, and FRN samples. RF represents rice flour, MLP represents marjoram leaf powder, F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 8.
X-ray diffraction pattern of RF, MLP, F0, and FRN samples. RF represents rice flour, MLP represents marjoram leaf powder, F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 9.
Correlation analysis: (a) biplot of PCA of FRNs and (b) Pearson correlation analysis. WI represents whiteness index, WSI represents water solubility index, CP represents crude protein, CF represents crude fiber, Fe represents iron, Ca represents calcium, PV represents peak viscosity, FV represents final viscosity, SM represents storage modulus at 43.7 rad/s, CR represents creep at 274.211 s, V represents viscosity at 0.398 s−1, CT represents cooking time, SL represents solid loss, Uha represents uncooked noodle hardness, Cha represents cooked noodle hardness, Ch represents chewiness of cooked noodles, Cry represents crystallinity %, OAS represents overall acceptability of noodles, TPC represents total phenolic content, AOX represents antioxidant capacity, and TFC represents total flavonoid content. The colored ellipse in the upper triangle showed the correlation significance at p < 0.05. The blue color shows a positive correlation, and the maroon color shows a negative correlation. F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Figure 9.
Correlation analysis: (a) biplot of PCA of FRNs and (b) Pearson correlation analysis. WI represents whiteness index, WSI represents water solubility index, CP represents crude protein, CF represents crude fiber, Fe represents iron, Ca represents calcium, PV represents peak viscosity, FV represents final viscosity, SM represents storage modulus at 43.7 rad/s, CR represents creep at 274.211 s, V represents viscosity at 0.398 s−1, CT represents cooking time, SL represents solid loss, Uha represents uncooked noodle hardness, Cha represents cooked noodle hardness, Ch represents chewiness of cooked noodles, Cry represents crystallinity %, OAS represents overall acceptability of noodles, TPC represents total phenolic content, AOX represents antioxidant capacity, and TFC represents total flavonoid content. The colored ellipse in the upper triangle showed the correlation significance at p < 0.05. The blue color shows a positive correlation, and the maroon color shows a negative correlation. F0 represents 0% MLP, F2 represents 2% MLP, F4 represents 4% MLP, F6 represents 6% MLP, F8 represents 8% MLP, and F10 represents 10% MLP.
Table 1.
Nutritional composition of RF, MLP, F0, and FRNs with different levels of MLP addition.
Table 1.
Nutritional composition of RF, MLP, F0, and FRNs with different levels of MLP addition.
Property | Moisture (g/100 g) | Crude Protein (g/100 g) | Crude Fiber (g/100 g) | Crude Fat (g/100 g) | Ash (g/100 g) | Carbohydrate (g/100 g) | Fe (mg/100 g) | Zn (mg/100 g) | Ca (mg/100 g) |
---|
RF | 12.08 A ± 0.13 | 7.00 C ± 0.07 | 0.45 G ± 0.06 | 0.06 F ± 0.01 | 0.34 G ± 0.06 | 80.08 C ± 0.08 | 0.22 G ± 0.03 | 1.19 B ± 0.12 | 6.00 G ± 0.10 |
MLP | 10.52 D ± 0.17 | 9.72 A ± 0.03 | 16.15 A ± 0.03 | 2.92 A ± 0.03 | 12.05 A ± 0.03 | 48.63 G ± 0.07 | 53.32 A ± 0.13 | 3.49 A ± 0.30 | 200.00 A ± 0.50 |
F0 | 11.08 cC ± 0.23 | 6.37 bD ± 0.11 | 0.41 fG ± 0.05 | 0.05 eF ± 0.03 | 0.31 fG ± 0.05 | 81.78 aA ± 0.06 | 0.21 fG ± 0.02 | 1.13 dB ± 0.05 | 5.70 fG ± 0.05 |
F2 | 11.61 abAB ± 0.06 | 6.44 bD ± 0.07 | 0.72 eF ± 0.06 | 0.11 deEF ± 0.03 | 0.54 eF ± 0.06 | 80.58 bB ± 0.17 | 1.27 eF ± 0.01 | 1.18 cdB ± 0.06 | 9.59 eF ± 0.06 |
F4 | 11.37 bcBC ± 0.17 | 7.11 aBC ± 0.03 | 1.08 dE ± 0.06 | 0.17 cdDE ± 0.02 | 0.81 dE ± 0.06 | 79.47 cD ± 0.03 | 2.34 dE ± 0.01 | 1.28 bcB ± 0.06 | 13.76 dE ± 0.06 |
F6 | 11.37 bcBC ± 0.26 | 7.16 aBC ± 0.05 | 1.39 cD ± 0.03 | 0.23 bcCD ± 0.03 | 1.04 cD ± 0.03 | 78.81 dE ± 0.15 | 3.41 cD ± 0.03 | 1.33 abB ± 0.03 | 17.64 cD ± 0.03 |
F8 | 11.95 aA ± 0.08 | 7.22 aB ± 0.02 | 1.71 bC ± 0.02 | 0.28 abBC ± 0.03 | 1.27 bC ± 0.02 | 77.57 eF ± 0.01 | 4.47 bC ± 0.01 | 1.37 abB ± 0.02 | 21.52 bC ± 0.02 |
F10 | 11.26 bcBC ± 0.18 | 7.27 aB ± 0.03 | 2.02 aB ± 0.03 | 0.34 aB ± 0.03 | 1.51 aB ± 0.03 | 77.60 eF ± 0.06 | 5.53 aB ± 0.01 | 1.42 aB ± 0.03 | 25.40 aB ± 0.03 |
Table 2.
Color characteristics of the RF, MLP, and FRN.
Table 2.
Color characteristics of the RF, MLP, and FRN.
Sample | L | a | b | ΔE | WI |
---|
RF | 96.69 A ± 0.08 | −0.22 F ± 0.04 | 5.55 E ± 0.10 | - | 93.53 A ± 0.11 |
MLP | 49.00 F ± 0.61 | 2.00 D ± 0.07 | 25.65 A ± 0.54 | - | 42.88 F ± 0.31 |
F0 | 80.16 aB ± 0.82 | 0.22 dE ± 0.07 | 14.16 cD ± 0.52 | - | 75.63 aB ± 1.15 |
F2 | 64.93 bC ± 0.31 | 3.01 cC ± 0.07 | 22.91 aB ± 0.29 | 17.79 d ± 0.51 | 58.00 bC ± 0.52 |
F4 | 57.26 cD ± 0.04 | 3.91 bB ± 0.01 | 23.67 aB ± 0.10 | 25.07 c ± 0.07 | 50.99 cD ± 0.08 |
F6 | 51.52 dE ± 0.46 | 3.91 bB ± 0.01 | 22.99 aB ± 0.22 | 30.21 b ± 0.48 | 46.20 dE ± 0.42 |
F8 | 48.52 eF ± 0.36 | 4.87 aA ± 0.07 | 21.71 bC ± 0.08 | 33.40 a ± 0.42 | 43.40 eF ± 0.39 |
F10 | 48.48 eF ± 0.06 | 4.71 aA ± 0.02 | 21.67 bC ± 0.03 | 32.87 a ± 0.08 | 43.91 eF ± 0.09 |
Table 3.
Water absorption and water solubility indices of raw ingredients, F0, and FRNs.
Table 3.
Water absorption and water solubility indices of raw ingredients, F0, and FRNs.
Sample | WAI (g/g) | WSI (%) |
---|
RF | 2.43 C ± 0.01 | 2.02 CD ± 0.49 |
MLP | 4.55 A ± 0.02 | 25.51 A ± 0.94 |
F0 | 3.11 aB ± 0.22 | 1.25 dB ± 0.11 |
F2 | 2.97 aB ± 0.24 | 3.02 cBC ± 0.08 |
F4 | 3.01 aB ± 0.08 | 3.40 bB ± 0.11 |
F6 | 2.92 aB ± 0.26 | 3.51 bB ± 0.15 |
F8 | 2.93 aB ± 0.05 | 3.95 aB ± 0.01 |
F10 | 2.89 aB ± 0.34 | 4.00 aB ± 0.13 |
Table 4.
Pasting properties of RF, F0, and FRN samples.
Table 4.
Pasting properties of RF, F0, and FRN samples.
Sample | Peak Temp (°C) | Peak Viscosity (Pas) | Holding Strength (Pas) | Breakdown (Pas) | Final Viscosity (Pas) | Setback from Peak (Pas) | Setback from Trough (Pas) |
---|
RF | 95.30 A ± 0 | 2187.00 A ± 41.01 | 1453.00 A ± 18.38 | 734.00 A ± 22.34 | 3164.00 A ± 80.61 | 976.40 C ± 39.03 | 2430.00 A ± 57.98 |
F0 | 95.15 aB ± 0.07 | 831.75 aB ± 70.22 | 555.95 aB ± 21.14 | 275.85 aB ± 91.29 | 1415.50 aB ± 74.25 | 583.25 bB ± 4.03 | 1139.00 aB ± 16.97 |
F2 | 95.10 aB ± 0 | 705.90 abBC ± 4.81 | 516.75 abBC ± 4.60 | 189.15 abBC ± 0.21 | 1194.00 bcCD ± 5.66 | 488.40 aA ± 0.99 | 1005.00 bcBC ± 5.66 |
F4 | 95.10 aB ± 0 | 642.90 bcCD ± 24.75 | 515.75 abBC ± 10.54 | 127.15 abC ± 14.35 | 1220.00 bC ± 5.66 | 577.25 bAB ± 18.88 | 1093.00 abBC ± 8.49 |
F6 | 95.10 aB ± 0 | 563.45 cdDE ± 4.17 | 470.15 bcCD ± 1.77 | 93.35 bC ± 5.9 | 1147.00 bcdCD ± 8.49 | 583.70 bB ± 12.73 | 1054.00 abcBC ± 14.14 |
F8 | 95.20 aAB ± 0 | 509.95 cdDE ± 12.37 | 422.50 cD ± 20.51 | 87.41 bC ± 8.19 | 1055.00 cdCD ± 55.15 | 545.15 abAB ± 42.36 | 967.60 cC ± 62.79 |
F10 | 95.10 aB ± 0 | 477.50 dE ± 33.66 | 408.00 cD ± 23.48 | 69.50 bC ± 10.25 | 1030.00 dD ± 22.63 | 552.85 abAB ± 10.96 | 960.80 cC ± 12.45 |
Table 5.
Textural properties of uncooked and cooked noodles based on F0 and FRNs.
Table 5.
Textural properties of uncooked and cooked noodles based on F0 and FRNs.
Sample | Uncooked | Cooked |
---|
Hardness (N) | Hardness (N) | Adhesiveness (J × 10−3) | Gumminess (N) | Chewiness (J × 10−3) | Cohesiveness |
---|
F0 | 117.04 a ± 9.86 | 17.41 ab ± 0.47 | 0.43 a ± 0.15 | 10.65 ab ± 1.94 | 204.93 a ± 55.01 | 0.61 ab ± 0.10 |
F2 | 111.26 ab ± 16.17 | 16.80 b ± 0.39 | 0.27 a ± 0.12 | 12.40 a ± 1.12 | 10.63 b ± 1.19 | 0.74 a ± 0.06 |
F4 | 94.31 b ± 12.54 | 15.87 b ± 0.22 | 0.13 a ± 0.06 | 10.54 ab ± 0.11 | 8.63 b ± 0.55 | 0.66 ab ± 0.01 |
F6 | 66.96 c ± 15.58 | 16.31 b ± 0.58 | 0.27 a ± 0.06 | 9.89 ab ± 0.42 | 8.10 b ± 0.30 | 0.60 ab ± 0.04 |
F8 | 68.13 c ± 6.51 | 17.03 b ± 0.68 | 0.43 a ± 0.21 | 8.63 b ± 0.62 | 6.43 b ± 0.49 | 0.51 b ± 0.06 |
F10 | 70.58 c ± 12.59 | 19.30 a ± 1.34 | 0.20 a ± 0.17 | 9.97 ab ± 0.75 | 7.53 b ± 0.46 | 0.52 b ± 0.03 |
Table 6.
Contents of TPC, AOX capacity, and TFC of raw ingredients, F0, and FRN samples.
Table 6.
Contents of TPC, AOX capacity, and TFC of raw ingredients, F0, and FRN samples.
Sample | TPC (mg GAE/g DW) | AOX (mg GAE/g DW) | TFC (mg QE/g DW) |
---|
RF | 2.1242 B ± 0.1717 | 0.02010 B ± 0.0006 | 0.0949 B ± 0.0712 |
MLP | 350.8222 A ± 39.6955 | 113.0690 A ± 0.9616 | 10.0362 A ± 0.6436 |
F0 | 2.2340 fB ± 0.0174 | 0.0484 eB ± 0.0044 | 0.1068 fB ± 0.0119 |
F2 | 5.4715 eB ± 0.1502 | 0.0570 dB ± 0.0013 | 0.1632 eB ± 0.003 |
F4 | 9.1300 dB ± 0.0322 | 0.0630 cdB ± 0.0027 | 0.2492 dB ± 0.0059 |
F6 | 12.6489 cB ± 0.0107 | 0.0689 bcB ± 0.0013 | 0.3842 cB ± 0.0034 |
F8 | 16.4146 bB ± 0.2789 | 0.0727 bB ± 0.0015 | 0.4606 bB ± 0.0066 |
F10 | 19.1511 aB ± 0.0561 | 0.0823 aB ± 0.0024 | 0.5100 aB ± 0.0017 |
Table 7.
Absorbance ratio of RF, MLP, F0, and FRNs.
Table 7.
Absorbance ratio of RF, MLP, F0, and FRNs.
Sample | Absorbance | Absorbance Ratio |
---|
A995 | A1022 | A1047 | R1047/1022 | R1022/995 |
---|
RF | 0.411 | 0.435 | 0.385 | 0.88 | 1.058 |
MLP | 0.123 | 0.157 | 0.158 | 1.01 | 1.276 |
F0 | 0.098 | 0.103 | 0.097 | 0.94 | 1.050 |
F2 | 0.106 | 0.108 | 0.103 | 0.96 | 1.022 |
F4 | 0.070 | 0.071 | 0.065 | 0.92 | 1.013 |
F6 | 0.089 | 0.090 | 0.088 | 0.98 | 1.016 |
F8 | 0.148 | 0.152 | 0.144 | 0.95 | 1.029 |
F10 | 0.410 | 0.431 | 0.401 | 0.93 | 1.050 |
Table 8.
Sensory acceptability of F0 and FRNs.
Table 8.
Sensory acceptability of F0 and FRNs.
Sample | Color | Appearance | Stickiness | Aroma | Taste | Texture | Overall Acceptability |
---|
F0 | 8.00 a ± 0.89 | 6.18 abc ± 1.33 | 6.18 ab ± 1.54 | 5.36 c ± 0.81 | 7.09 a ± 0.83 | 6.64 a ± 1.69 | 7.00 ab ± 1.25 |
F2 | 7.64 a ± 1.03 | 7.82 a ± 1.47 | 7.36 a ± 1.43 | 6.73 ab ± 0.90 | 6.64 ab ± 0.81 | 7.45 a ± 0.82 | 7.82 a ± 0.75 |
F4 | 7.64 a ± 0.81 | 7.00 ab ± 1.84 | 7.27 a ± 0.79 | 7.27 a ± 0.79 | 6.00 ab ± 0.63 | 6.36 ab ± 0.81 | 6.45 b ± 0.52 |
F6 | 5.45 b ± 1.86 | 5.27 bcd ± 2.05 | 6.09 ab ± 1.14 | 6.91 ab ± 0.83 | 5.82 b ± 0.75 | 6.00 ab ± 1.41 | 5.82 b ± 0.40 |
F8 | 4.73 bc ± 2.10 | 4.45 cd ± 2.58 | 5.45 b ± 1.37 | 6.00 bc ± 0.63 | 5.45 bc ± 1.13 | 5.09 b ± 1.22 | 4.55 c ± 0.82 |
F10 | 3.36 c ± 2.06 | 3.73 d ± 2.05 | 4.82 b ± 1.17 | 5.82 bc ± 1.40 | 4.45 c ± 1.44 | 5.00 b ± 0.80 | 3.09 d ± 1.45 |