Valorization of Local Legumes and Nuts as Key Components of the Mediterranean Diet
Abstract
:1. Introduction—Legumes and Nuts as Mediterranean Staple Food
1.1. Legumes
1.2. Nuts
2. Classification, Nutritional and Technological Functionality of Legumes and Nuts
2.1. Legume Characterization as a Healthy Food Source
2.2. Nuts Characterization
3. Ready-to-Eat Products
3.1. Methodology
3.2. Enriched Food
3.3. Snacks
3.4. Meat Analogues and Their Derivatives
3.5. Beverages and Soups
4. Market Projections and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Food Type | Raw Material | Formulation | Elaboration | Final Product | Target Audience | Country | Observations | Reference |
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RTE baby food | Legumes (cowpea and peanut) | Cowpea, ripe banana, and peanut (47%, 40% and 13%, respectively) | Cowpea, ripe banana, and peanut were weighed, mixed, and milled (E Grinding mill). Final product was passed through the mill until the desired particle size was obtained. The product was stored in sealed containers at −18 °C | Weaning food | Babies | Raw material from Georgia, U. S | Positive results have been obtained to produce foods for weaned infants that satisfy their nutritional needs with 16.89% protein and 8.38% oil | [68] |
RTE breakfast products | Legumes (Soybean seeds) | Mixed flour (600 g of maize and 400 g of soy flour), 100 g of cassava starch, 225 g of sugar and 12 g of salt. Pineapple, pawpaw, and banana ripe fruit pulps were added separately to the breakfast formulation at concentrations of 0, 100, 200, 300 and 400 g/kg flour. | Soybean seeds and maize grains were converted into flour, cassava roots into starch and fruits into pulp. The ingredients were completely mixed, steamed for 1 h, sliced into thin slices, dried at 55 °C, milled into powder, cooled, packaged, and stored in the freezer during the period of chemical and sensory analysis. To reconstitute the breakfast cereal, 200 mL water at 95 °C was mixed with 100 g each product (ratio of 2:1) | A RTE breakfast cereal with fruit pulp | Young audience and adults for the “on-the-go” consumption | Nigeria | After tasting, the sample of 100 g of fruit pulp per kg of flour (7% of total weight) was the most acceptable among tasters. | [69] |
RTE breakfast | Legumes (Popped pearl millet) | Popped pearl millet (29.2–42%), popped amaranth (12.0%), puffed wheat (3.2–10%), flax seeds (0.0–7.0%), sunflower seeds, raisins (4.0%), honey (2.2%), sugar (20%), sunflower oil (6.3%) and water (6.3%). | Dry ingredients were mixed in a stainless-steel bowl. Sugar syrup was prepared using sugar and water (50–60 °C) with addition of sunflower oil and honey. Then, syrup mixture was added to the dry ingredients and mixed until it was homogenously dispersed. Final product was baked (50–60 °C for 15 min). The breakfast cereal was cooled at room temperature (RT:27 °C), packaged and stored at RT | Healthy ready-to-eat breakfast cereal from popped pearl millet | All audiences looking for healthier options | India | The pearl millet RTE-breakfast cereal contained high number of proteins, dietary fibre, folic acid and minerals such as calcium, phosphorus and iron | [70] |
RTE breakfast | Nut (Bambara groundnut) | Bambara groundnut, malted sorghum, pearl millet and banana were processed into flours and mixed in the ratio of 50:20:20:10, respectively. | Ingredients were mixed and extruded, using the response surface methodology, screw speed at 300–350 rpm, barrel temperature at 180–220 °C, and feed moisture at 12–16% | Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea)-based ready-to- eat breakfast cereal | All audiences looking for healthier options | Nigeria | It was found that the Bambara variety of groundnut flour can be used to produce a RTE breakfast cereal using extrusion. It contains 17.24% protein and better digestibility. After a sensory analysis, it has been well accepted and in addition the microbiological analysis has been positive. | [71] |
RTE drink | Legumes (mung bean starch and soybean flour) | Drink with Mung bean starch: Mung bean starch (45.37%), soybean flour (39.96%), groundblack sesame seed (4.01%), acesulfame-K (0.1%), rice bran oil (1.05%), and sugar (9.51%) Drink with polished rice + brown rice flour: rice flour (26.67%), brown rice flour (26.67%), soybean flour (28.54%), ground black sesame seed (4.07%), acesulfame-K (0.1%), rice bran oil (2.44%), sugar (9.51%) | Dried ingredients were mixed with water (40 g/100 g, respectively). Then, the slurry was applied onto a pilot-scale double-roller drum dryer (30 cm diameter and 45 cm length) with 0.1 mm roller gap, 1 rpm roller speed and 6–9 kg/cm2 steam pressure. The drum-dried sheets were broken into 1 cm size and dry-mixing with soybean flour, sugar, and acesulfame K. The dehydrated products were packed in heat-sealed polypropylene (PP) bags until use | Cereal and legume based instant drink | Elderly | Thailand | The products (aw < 0.3) had balanced energy distribution, good quality protein, and energy from saturated fat < 8 kcal/100 kcal and free sugar < 10 kcal/100 kcal | [72] |
RTE instant soup | Legumes (mung bean starch and soybean flour) | Soup with Mung bean starch: Mung bean (41.1%) starch, soybean flour (32.06%), ground black sesame seed (4.11%), rice bran oil (1.23%), soup seasoning (21.5%) Soup with polished rice + brown rice flour: rice flour (24.79%), brown rice flour (24.79%), soybean flour (22.31%), ground black sesame seed (4.13%), rice bran oil (2.48%), soup seasoning (21.5%) | Dried ingredients were mixed with water (40 g/100 g, respectively). Then, the slurry was applied onto a pilot-scale double-roller drum dryer (30 cm diameter and 45 cm length) with 0.1 mm roller gap, 1 rpm roller speed and 6–9 kg/cm2 steam pressure. The drum-dried sheets of different formulas were broken into 1 cm size and mixed with shitake-flavoured powder. The dehydrated products were packed in heat-sealed PP bags until use | Cereal and legume based instant soup | Elderly | Thailand | The products (aw < 0.3) had balanced energy distribution, good quality protein, and energy from saturated fat < 8 kcal/100 kcal and free sugar < 10 kcal/100 kcal | [72] |
RTE plant-based cheese | Legume (Soy) Nut (Cashew) | Vegan milk cheese was prepared by substituting soy milk with cashew nut milk at different proportions: 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%. | First, the kernel of the cashew nut was cracked to remove the nut. Nuts were cleaned and soaked overnight. The dry soybeans were soaked in clean water for 20 min and then boiled for 30 min. The beans were cooled and then dehulled. Nuts and beans were wet milled, after which the slurry was sieved using a muslin cloth to obtain the milk. Soy milk was substituted for cashew milk at different proportions. The milk was boiled for 5 min with occasional stirring followed by cooling to 78 °C. The coagulant solution made by dissolving 15.0 g alum in 25 mL of distilled water was added. The homogenate was kept for 30 min for effective coagulation. The curd was drained in a muslin cloth and pressed for 45 min using a weight of 6 kg. Cheese was weighed and cut into rectangular shapes. It was then boiled with salt, pepper, and seasoning cube (all to taste) | Cheese analog | All audiences, lactose intolerant | Nigeria | The overall acceptability of the samples decreased with increasing cashew nut milk substitution | [73] |
RTE plant-based milk | Legumes (Lentil) Nut (Almond) | Plant-based milk substitute (Almond) with lentil protein isolate in sunflower oil (3.3%), sucrose (2.5%) and salt (0.08%) | Milk was elaborated with lentil protein isolate (3.3%) in sunflower oil (treated at 900 bar and 85 °C), and commercial almond-milk. Sucrose (2.5% w/w), salt (0.08% w/w) were added to the formulation | Lentil-based milk | All audiences, lactose intolerant | Ireland and Germany | After performing sensory analyses of the lentil-based milk replacer, it has comparable organoleptic profiles to other commercial plant-based milks. | [74] |
RTE porridge | Legumes (fava bean) | Prosso millet, little millet, soaked fava beans and germinated fava beans in different proportions: P1:70-0-30-0; P2: 0-70-30-0; P3: 70-0-0-30); P4: 0-70-0-30; P5: 35-35-30-0; P6: 35-35-0-30, respectively | All the grains were washed with tap water. The grains were soaked in the water (1:3) at 65 °C for 3.5 h followed by steaming for 15 min at 121 °C and 15 psi. The cooked grains were placed in the hot air oven (45 °C) till desired moisture content (8%), followed by milling and passed through 70 mesh sieve size. For the formulation of RTE porridge the millets (little and prosso) and fava beans (soaked and germinated) were mixed in different proportions. For germination, fava beans were soaked (200 g/600 mL) in water for 24 h and kept further for 24 h at 25 °C in a dark place as a single grain bed | Ready to mix gluten-free porridge | All audiences, including gluten intolerant people | India | The in vitro starch digestibility of formulation P5 (little millet, prosso millet and soaked fava bean) was significantly higher (67.70%) compared to other formulations. | [75] |
RTE purée | Legumes (Kabuli and Apulian chickpea) | 100% chickpea | Chickpeas were soaked overnight in tap water (1:2 w/v) at room temperature (23 °C). Then, soaking water was discarded, and softened chickpeas were boiled in tap water (1:2 w/v) for 70 min. After cooking, the chickpeas were ground by a blender, and the obtained purée was poured into glass jars (125 mL). The sterilization process (F0 ¼ 3) of the jars was performed in an autoclave. | Canned chickpea purée | All audiences | Italy | Looking at all these features make canned puree of chickpeas a healthy RTE food, which is at the same time rich in fiber and bioactive compounds, and able to fulfil certain needs generated by the timesaving needs of modern lifestyle. | [76] |
RTE purée/cream | Legumes (Chickpea flour) | Chickpea flour, water, extra virgin olive oil, soymilk, common salt and lemon juice | For slurries, chickpea seeds were hydrated with tap water (1:6 w/v) and boiled (under 98.07 kPa for 20 min). The cooking water was drained used for chickpea slurries. Seeds were discarded. Chickpea flour toasting was performed at 90 °C for 20 min using a TM 31 food processor. Four chickpea flour (CF) slurry formulations were prepared: with raw (RCF) or toasted flour (TCF), and with lemon juice (RCFL, TCFL) CF slurries without added lemon juice were prepared from 14.29% of raw or toasted flour, 57.14% of cooking water, 27.43% of soymilk, 0.57% of oil, and 0.57% of salt. In the CF slurries with added lemon juice, the total amount of lemon (0.56%) was subtracted from the original soymilk content. Formulations were unpressurized and pressurized at 600 MPa and 50 °C for 15 or 25 min (HPP-induced CF products). Homogenates were irradiated for 2 min at an output power rating of 700 W. | RTE chickpea flour purée or cream | All audiences looking for healthier options | Spain | All the CF products were microbiologically innocuous and stable during two months at cooled storage. Mainly, the HHP-treated chickpea flour (CF) products diverged in their texture depending on the CF used, the holding time and the presence of lemon juice, whereby each individual product could be categorised as a CF purée or a cream. Moreover, all the formulations exposed similar very high sensory quality. | [77] |
RTE snack | Legumes (Pulse flour (red lentil)) | Variable ingredients: Rice flour (60–80%) and pulse flour (10–30%); and fixed carrot pomace (10%) and salt (2%) | First, pomace carrot was treated with 1% (w/v) citric acid at 65 °C, and dried to moisture content of 6.0% (db). Pomace flour was obtained by grinding dried pomace in a 750 W grinder. Rice and pulse samples were ground to elaborate flour. Variable and fixed ingredients of the formulation were mixed and extruded at 40, 70 and 100 °C. Barrel diameter and length/diameter ratio were 2.5 mm and 16:1, respectively. | Cereal-based RTE expanded product formulated with carrot pomace | Young audience and adults for the “on-the-go” consumption | India | The ideal extrusion method factors obtained were an 80:10:10 (rice flour/pulse flour/carrot pomace powder) sample formulation. | [78] |
RTE snack | Legumes (Pearl millet, Green gram, Soya bean) | The ready-to-eat nutritious snack mix was developed by blending the flour from popped millets and legumes with sugar and other ingredients in the optimized proportion 30:20:27:23. Sorghum, grain amaranthus, bengal gram, Pearl millet, Green gram, Soya bean, sugar, honey, sunflower oil, skimmed milk powder and groundnut seeds | Sorghum and pearl millet (5 Kg of each) were dried to a moisture content of 18%. The tempered grains were popped by high temperature and short time (HTST) treatment (230 ± 5 °C). Amaranthus was popped by subjecting the grains to direct heat in a pan. For popping the legume components, about 5 kg of each of split green gram and soya were steeped in water at ambient temperature for 2 h, followed by steaming at atmospheric pressure for 20 min. The steamed grains were dried in a mechanical drier HTST. Groundnut seeds were toasted at 70 °C. Popped sorghum, pearl millet, grain amaranthus, green gram, soya and bengal gram were pulverized to flour of (355 μm). The toasted groundnut seeds were disintegrated to smaller grits (1204 μm). Accordingly, the RTE snack mix was prepared by blending 10 g popped sorghum, 10 g popped bajra, 10 g popped amaranthus, 8 g popped green gram dhal, 8 g popped bengal gram dhal, 4 g popped soy dhal, 6 g skimmed milk powder, 3 g roasted groundnut seeds, 27 g sugar, 9 g oil, 2 g honey, 1 g each of pectin, edible gum, and glycerol in a ribbon mixer/blender. | A RTE nutritious snack mix. | Young audience and adults for the “on-the-go” consumption. The product can be mixed with desired quantity of water, or with milk to prepare porridge. | India | The sensory evaluation of the product revealed that colour, taste, texture, aroma, appearance, and overall quality were in satisfactory range with mean score of 6.8. | [79] |
RTE snack | Legumes (laird lentil, yellow split chickpea and peanut) | Cereal-legume composite bars contained the same fixed ingredients (oats, laird lentils, yellow split chickpeas, dates, honey, water), one of two variable cereals (maize or semolina) and one of three add-on ingredients (toasted peanuts and dates, toasted sesame seeds and dates, or oat flakes) | Maize (30 g) or semolina (30 g), oats (30 g), laird lentils (40 g) and yellow split chickpeas (40 g) were individually toasted in the oven (Bosch) at 130 °C for 60 min. The toasted ingredients were then ground in a mixer (Robot Coupe) followed by the addition of cardamom powder (1 g). Ten dates were finely chopped and incorporated into the mixture with 50 mL of warm water and 35 mL of honey. The mixture was then uniformly spread in a rectangular pan (20 cm × 8 cm) to a thickness of 2 cm and sprinkled with either toasted peanuts and dates, toasted sesame seeds and dates, or oats flakes, thus yielding six different cereal-legume formulations. The bars were cooled for 30 min and cut into bars (8.5 cm × 2.5 cm). | Novel pulse-based snack bar | Young audience and adults for “on-the-go” consumption | Mauritius | The storage study indicated a reasonably short shelf-life of <2 days when kept at 4 °C. | [80] |
RTE snack | Legumes (laird lentil, yellow split chickpea and peanut) | Cereal-legume-vegetable composite bars contained the same fixed ingredients (oats, laird lentils, yellow split chickpeas, dates, honey, water), one of two variable vegetables (beetroot or carrot) and one of three add-on ingredients (toasted peanuts and dates, toasted sesame seeds and dates, or oat flakes). | A beetroot or carrot was washed, peeled, and grated. Grated beetroot or carrot (30 g), oats (30 g), laird lentils (40 g) and yellow split chickpeas (40 g) were individually toasted in the oven at 130 °C for 30–60 min depending on the ingredient. The toasted ingredients were then ground in a mixer followed by the addition of cardamom powder (1 g). Dates were chopped and incorporated into the mix with 50 mL of warm water and 35 mL of honey. The paste was spread in a rectangular pan (20 cm × 8 cm) to a thickness of 2 cm and sprinkled with toasted peanuts and dates or toasted sesame seeds and dates or oat flakes) resulting in six different formulations. The bars were then cooled for 30 min and subsequently cut into bars (8.5 cm × 2.5 cm). | Novel pulse-based snack bar | Young audience and adults for the “on-the-go” consumption | Mauritius | The storage study indicated a relatively short shelf-life of <2 days when kept at 4 °C. | [80] |
RTE snack | Legumes (Black gram) | Extruded RTE snacks were prepared from flour blends made with corn flour, Bengal gram flour, roots and tuber flours in a proportion of 60–80:20:20 respectively and moisture was adjusted to 17–20%. | Tubers, corn and black gram were peeled, washed and cut into 1–2 cm cubes. Tubers were soaked in sodium metabisulfite (0.075%) and oven dried at 50 °C for 30 h. Corn and black were dried at 5 °C for 20 h. Then, all ingredients were milled into flour and sifted a 300 µm sieve. Ingredients were mixed and extruded in a co-rotating twin screw extruder. The barrel diameter and L/D ratio were 37 mm and 27:1, respectively. Different formulations were extruded at 80 ± 5 °C and 95–105 °C temperature, 300–350 rpm screw speed, 100 ± 10 °C die temperature and 15 ± 2 kg/h feed rate. | Extruded RTE snack | All audiences looking for healthier options | India | The fibre and energy content of the RTE extruded snack enhanced in experimental samples prepared using root and tuber flours. | [81] |
RTE snack | Legumes (mung bean starch and soybean flour) | Snack with Mung bean starch: Mung bean starch (51.55%), soybean flour (38.32%), ground black sesame seed (4.56%), acesulfame-K (0.1%), rice bran oil (0.91%), sugar (4.56%) Snack with polished rice + brown rice flour: rice flour (31.16%), brown rice flour (31.16%), soybean flour (25.67%), ground black sesame seed (4.58%), acesulfame-K (0.1%), rice bran oil (2.75%), sugar (4.58%) | Dried ingredients were mixed with water (40 g/100 g). The slurry was applied onto a pilot-scale double-roller drum dryer, 30 cm diameter, 45 cm length, a hard chrome material on the roller surface, with 0.1 mm roller gap, 1 rpm roller speed and 6–9 kg/cm2 steam pressure. The drum-dried sheets of different formulas were broken into approximately 1 cm size and used directly for the flake snack. The products were packed in heat-sealed PP bags. | Cereal and legume-based snack | Elderly | Thailand | The products (aw < 0.3) had well-adjusted energy distribution, good quality protein, and energy from saturated fat < 8 kcal/100 kcal and free sugar < 10 kcal/100 kcal. | [72] |
RTE snack | Legumes (Common bean) | Flour portion (%) of 1:1:2.5 (wheat: maize: common bean), 1.7% eggs, 2.5 white sugar, 1.5% butter, 0.1% salt and 0.1% yeasts. | All the ingredients were weighed and added in a bowl. After mixing the ingredients, common bean flour, sugar, salt and yeast, the eggs, and the melted butter were added and converted to dough. Finally, the dough was cookie-shaped and baked at 180 °C for 10–15 min. | What cookies | All audiences looking for healthier options | Portugal | This study revealed, for the first time, through a human intervention trial the importance of using legumes (common beans in specific) as alternative ingredients to increase ready-to- eat products’ nutritional quality. | [82] |
RTE snack | Legumes (chickpea flour and peanut) Nuts (walnuts) | Black wheat (30%), corn flour (20%), flour (15%), chickpeas (15%), black beans (2%), peanuts (3%), melon seeds (3%), walnut (3%), black sesame seeds (4%), red date powder (15%), sugar powder (15%), maltodextrin (15%), and sunflower oil (20%) | Ingredients were pre-treated and mixed. Edible additives (maltodextrin, suspension beverages stabilizer, other nutritional supplements) were added to de mixture. The homogenate was dried and packaged. | Healthy nutritional product | All audiences looking for healthier options | China | BWGP has several benefits, which include: a regional distinguishing, simple creation methods, and rich flavours. Overall, our study intensive on the nutritional, flavour, and compositional effects and how a food product can be prepared healthier, more sustainable or more acceptable to the consumer. | [83] |
RTE snack | Legumes (Common beans) | White maize (70%), common bean (30%) | White maize or common bean kernels (1 kg) were grinded to grits (0.425 mm). Grits were conditioned with purified water until 18% moisture; each lot was packed in a polyethylene (PE) bag and stored at 4 °C for 12 h. Extrusion cooking was carried out in a lab-scale extruder (Model 20 DN). Expanded snacks were produced at 164 °C and screw speed of 187 rpm. Final products were cooled, equilibrated (25 °C, RH = 65%, 1 h) and packed in hermetic plastic bags. | RTE extruded snack | All audiences looking for healthier options | Mexico | The expanded snack could be source of bioactive, nutritional and antioxidant compounds for the upgrading of the consumer’s health. | [84] |
RTE snack | Nuts (Baru almonds (BA), Brazil nuts (BN)) | BA 100, BN25:BA75, BN50:BA50, BN75:BA25, and sunflower lecithin 2%, Brazil nuts oil 3%, Honey 9% | BN and BA were mixed in a food processor for 15 min, followed by the addition of Brazil nuts oil, lecithin, and honey. The obtained mass was laminated and pressed at a pressure of 4.32 Pa, packed with a plastic film, and refrigerated for 8 h. | Nutritive bar | Young audience and adults for the “on-the-go” consumption | Brazil | The highest satisfactoriness indexes for taste and texture (59 and 67%, respectively) were detected for BN25:BA75 while BA100 achieved the maximum acceptability index for odour, colour, and global perception (71, 73, and 72%, respectively). | [85] |
RTE supplemented food | Legumes (Green gram) | Germinated wheat, green gram, potato flour, spinach leaves powder, baking powder and baking soda (52.5:15:30:2.5) were used. Fat was added and creamed. Sugar and milk were also used | Wheat and green gram were germinated, dried, and converted into flour. Potatoes were washed, peeled, sliced, boiled, dipped in potassium metabisulphite solution, dried, and grounded into flour. Spinach leaves were washed, dried, and made into powder. Ingredients were mixed and sieved into the creamed fat. Powdered sugar (52 g) was added to the creamed mixture. Smooth dough was prepared using milk (10 mL) with dissolved ammonium bicarbonate. The smooth dough was rolled to 1/4-inch thickness. The required shapes were cut out of the dough with a cutter and baked at 150 °C for 20 min. | Biscuits | Malnourished children | India | Biscuits were adequate at 30 per cent level of potato flour and 2.5 per cent level of spinach leaves powder. | [86] |
RTE snack | Legumes (carob fruit and pea) | Pea, rice, carob, salt, calcium carbonate. Different formulations: 1rst (20:80:0:0.5:0.5), 2nd (20:75:5:0.75:0.75), 3rd (20:70:10:1:1), 4th (40:60:0:1:0.5), 5st (40:55:5:1:0.75), 6st (40:50:10:1:1) | The seeds were milled and passed through a 1-mm sieve. Blends were prepared by mixing the different ingredients. The flours were blended in a domestic mixing system and stored in PP bags until needed. The extrusion was developed at 125 °C and 900–950 rpm. | Snack | Gluten-free expanded product | Spain | The results achieved verified that combinations based on legumes (carob fruit and pea) and rice can be a fresh source of bioactive compounds to be used in the elaboration of expanded gluten-free snack. | [87] |
RTE snack | Legumes (carob fruit and bean) | Rice (70–55%), bean (20 or 40%) and carob fruit (5 or 10%) | Flour blends were prepared by mixing rice (70–55%), bean (20 or 40%) and carob fruit (5 or 10%) flours to obtain 6 formulations (20.0, 20.5, 20.10, 40.0, 40.5 and 40.10). The first number of the code sample corresponded to bean percentage (20 or 40) and the second one (0, 5 or 10) to whole carob fruit percentage present in the formulation. Ingredients were mixed and extruded at 125 °C and 900–950 rpm. | Snack | Gluten-free expanded product | Spain | After extrusion, a decrease in the total dietary fibre (20–25%), and a reorganization of the fibre portions was observed. | [88] |
Ingredient | Technological Property | Modification | Result | Possible Application Examples | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lentil flour | Water and fat binding, emulsifying, foaming, gelling, and texturizing | Heat treatment (dispersed in Millipore water under agitation for 1 h at 20 °C, boiled in a water bath at 90 °C for 20 min) | Reduction in solubility (due to aggregation) | Meat analogues: nuggets, sausages, meat balls; cake doughnut; cookies; vegan cheese; vegan ice cream | [95] |
Soybean protein isolate | Emulsifying, fat and water absorption, thickening, gelling, foaming, and film formation | Heat treatment (95 °C for 15 and 30 min) | Improved emulsifying capacity | Bakery products: cakes, pancakes, bread, doughnuts; gravies and soups; Pizza; Meat analogues; vegan cheese, vegan ice cream | [49] |
High pressure treatment (600 MPa) | Reduced solubility | [96] | |||
Extrusion-cooking (150 rpm at 137–160 °C) | Reduced solubility | [97] | |||
Glycosylation (polysaccharides) | Improved thermal stability, viscosity, solubility, emulsifying, foaming, and water holding capacity | [98] | |||
Soybean flour | Emulsifying, fat and water absorption, thickening | Heat treatment (dispersed in Millipore water under agitation for 1 h at 20 °C, boiled in a water bath at 90 °C for 20 min) | Reduction in solubility (due to aggregation) | Meat analogues: Frankfurters, sausages, meat patties; bakery products; Soups | [95] |
Soybean β-conglycin and glycin | Emulsifying, fat and water absorption, thickening, gelling, foaming, and film formation | Ultrasounds (20 kHz at 400 W for 5, 20 and 40 min) | Increased solubility, emulsifying capacity, emulsion stability and surface hydrophobicity | Bakery products; Egg-free products; Mayonnaise | [99] |
Pea protein isolate | Emulsifying, fat and water absorption, thickening, gelling, foaming, and film formation | Heat treatment (95 °C for 15 and 30 min) | Improved emulsifying capacity | Bakery products; Egg-free products; Mayonnaise | [49] |
Acetylation (succinic anhydride n-octenyl succinic anhydride and dodecyl succinic anhydride) | Improved solubility | [100] | |||
Enzymatic cross-linking | Increased gel strength | [101] | |||
Pea legumin | Emulsifying, fat and water absorption, thickening, gelling, foaming, and film formation | Heat treatment followed by fast cooling | Improved gelling capacity | Meat analogues; Bakery products; Egg-free products; Mayonnaise | [102] |
Black bean protein isolate | Emulsifying, fat and water absorption, thickening, gelling, foaming, and film formation | Ultrasounds (12 and 24 min at 150, 300 and 450 W | Increased solubility | Bakery products; Egg-free products; Mayonnaise | [103] |
Pea protein concentrate | Emulsifying, fat and water absorption, thickening, gelling, foaming, and film formation | High pressure treatment (350 and 550 MPa) | Improved gel strength | Meat analogues; Bakery products; Egg-free products; Mayonnaise | [104] |
Glycosylation (Arabic gum) | Improved solubility and emulsifying capacity | Bakery products; Egg-free products; Mayonnaise | [105] | ||
Peanut protein isolate | Emulsifying, fat and water absorption, thickening, gelling, foaming, and film formation | Phosphorylation (55 °C and 5 h) | Increased solubility | Bakery products; Egg-free products; Mayonnaise | [106] |
Mung bean protein isolate | Emulsifying, fat and water absorption, thickening, gelling, foaming, and film formation | Acetylation (succinic anhydride) | Improved solubility and formability | Bakery products; Egg-free products; Mayonnaise | [107] |
Chickpea protein isolate | Emulsifying, fat and water absorption, thickening, gelling, foaming, and film formation | Alcalase enzyme (5% w/v) substrate, pH 8.0, 50 °C, 24 hr, Degree of hydrolysis 1% to 10% | Increased solubility and foaming capacity with degree of hydrolysis. Emulsion stability and foam stability decreases with degree of hydrolysis. Emulsion activity index improves with degree of analysis | Bakery products; Egg-free products; Mayonnaise | [108] |
Chickpea flour | Water and fat binding, emulsifying, foaming, gelling, and texturizing | Heat treatment (dispersed in Millipore water under agitation for 1 h at 20 °C, boiled in a water bath at 90 °C for 20 min) | Reduction in solubility (due to aggregation) | Meat analogues: Nuggets, sausages, meat balls; cake doughnut; cookies; vegan cheese; vegan ice cream | [95] |
Faba bean protein | Emulsifying, fat and water absorption, thickening, gelling, foaming, and film formation | Hydrolysis with different proteases (2–16% DH) | Improved solubility, foaming capacity, oil holding capacity | Meat analogues; Bakery products; Egg-free products; Mayonnaise | [109] |
Common beans (White Aura & Red Toska) | Gelling, pasting properties. | Extrusion-cooking (twin-screw extruder with a screw length/diameter ratio of 24:1. Temperatures 50–130 °C, screws speeds: 300–700 rpm). | Improved viscosity, higher water-holding capacity, gel formation decreases. | Meat analogues; snacks or instant food components and additives | [110] |
Faba beans proteins | Solubility, foaming, and emulsifying. | Acetylation of Faba Beans Protein Isolates (degree ~ 97%) | Improved solubility, higher protein levels, improved emulsifying capacity. | Plant-based emulsifiers. | [111] |
Lupins | Gelling properties, Solubility | Ultrasound: Low frequency (16–100 kHz) high-intensity waves (10–1000 W/cm2) | Improved gelling properties, higher water holding capacity. | Light dairy products, desserts, and meat analogues. | [53] |
Pea Protein Isolate | Gelling properties, emulsifying capacity | Ultrasound: Low frequency (20–100 kHz) high-intensity waves (10–1000 W/cm2) | Enhanced emulsifying capacity, nanoemulsion formation. | Food industry plant-based emulsifiers. | [112] |
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Hernández-López, I.; Ortiz-Solà, J.; Alamprese, C.; Barros, L.; Shelef, O.; Basheer, L.; Rivera, A.; Abadias, M.; Aguiló-Aguayo, I. Valorization of Local Legumes and Nuts as Key Components of the Mediterranean Diet. Foods 2022, 11, 3858. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11233858
Hernández-López I, Ortiz-Solà J, Alamprese C, Barros L, Shelef O, Basheer L, Rivera A, Abadias M, Aguiló-Aguayo I. Valorization of Local Legumes and Nuts as Key Components of the Mediterranean Diet. Foods. 2022; 11(23):3858. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11233858
Chicago/Turabian StyleHernández-López, Israel, Jordi Ortiz-Solà, Cristina Alamprese, Lillian Barros, Oren Shelef, Loai Basheer, Ana Rivera, Maribel Abadias, and Ingrid Aguiló-Aguayo. 2022. "Valorization of Local Legumes and Nuts as Key Components of the Mediterranean Diet" Foods 11, no. 23: 3858. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11233858