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Review

Paleolimnological Approaches to Track Anthropogenic Eutrophication in Lacustrine Systems Across the American Continent: A Review

by
Cinthya Soledad Manjarrez-Rangel
1,
Silvana Raquel Halac
2,*,
Luciana Del Valle Mengo
2,
Eduardo Luis Piovano
2 and
Gabriela Ana Zanor
1,3,*
1
Posgrado en Biociencias, División de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad de Guanajuato, Ex Hacienda El Copal, Km. 9. Carretera Irapuato-Silao, Irapuato C.P. 36500, GTO, Mexico
2
Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Tierra (CICTERRA)-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Vélez Sarsfield 1611, Córdoba X5016GCA, Argentina
3
Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales, División de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad de Guanajuato, Ex Hacienda El Copal, Km. 9. Carretera Irapuato-Silao, Irapuato C.P. 36500, GTO, Mexico
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Limnol. Rev. 2025, 25(3), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev25030033
Submission received: 23 May 2025 / Revised: 28 June 2025 / Accepted: 11 July 2025 / Published: 17 July 2025
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Abstract

Eutrophication has intensified in lacustrine systems across the American continent, which has been primarily driven by human activities such as intensive agriculture, wastewater discharge, and land-use change. This phenomenon adversely affects water quality, biodiversity, and ecosystem functioning. However, studies addressing the historical evolution of trophic states in lakes and reservoirs remain limited—particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. In this context, sedimentary records serve as invaluable archives for reconstructing the environmental history of water bodies. Paleolimnological approaches enable the development of robust chronologies to further analyze physical, geochemical, and biological proxies to infer long-term changes in primary productivity and trophic status. This review synthesizes the main methodologies used in paleolimnological research focused on trophic state reconstruction with particular attention to the utility of proxies such as fossil pigments, diatoms, chironomids, and elemental geochemistry. It further underscores the need to broaden spatial research coverage, fostering interdisciplinary integration and the use of emerging tools such as sedimentary DNA among others. High-resolution temporal records are critical for disentangling natural variability from anthropogenically induced changes, providing essential evidence to inform science-based lake management and restoration strategies under anthropogenic and climate pressures.

1. Eutrophication in the Context of Global Change

Since the mid-20th century, the Earth system has undergone significant environmental transformations, which have been primarily driven by human activities. This phenomenon has prompted the proposal of a new geological epoch known as the Anthropocene [1,2,3]. However, the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS) rejected the proposal to establish it as a new geologic epoch on Earth (https://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/working-groups/anthropocene, accessed on 12 July 2025). Although the formal onset of the Anthropocene remains debated, the Industrial Revolution (~1750) and the Great Acceleration (~1950) have been suggested as potential starting points with the latter being the most widely accepted [4,5]. In the context of global change, eutrophication has emerged as one of the most significant processes impacting lacustrine ecosystems. It is defined as the excessive enrichment of nutrients, primarily nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), leading to increased primary productivity, the proliferation of toxic cyanobacteria, and changes in ecological structure [6]. Consequently, dissolved oxygen (DO) levels decrease, chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) concentrations increase, and water quality deteriorates [7,8]. While eutrophication can occur naturally, it is now mainly associated with anthropogenic pressures such as land-use changes, industrialization, and the intensification of agricultural and livestock practices, which are phenomena collectively known as cultural eutrophication (Figure 1) [9,10].
In recent decades, numerous studies have documented the degradation of water quality and the increasing trophic states in lacustrine systems across the American continent, using diverse methodologies including analytical techniques [11,12,13,14], remote sensing [15,16,17,18], and hydrological and biogeochemical modeling [19,20,21]. In the United States (USA), annual reports from the Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) have identified since 1972 nutrient over-enrichment and its associated impacts as the leading causes of lake water quality deterioration [22]. Between 1990 and 2021, it was estimated that approximately 75% of lakes exhibited eutrophic conditions. Furthermore, many water bodies previously classified as oligotrophic or mesotrophic have shown a trend toward eutrophication despite targeted nutrient management efforts [23,24].
In Latin America, systematic water quality monitoring programs are relatively recent and rarely extend beyond three decades. Nevertheless, progressive eutrophication has been reported in several lacustrine systems. For example, in Argentina, long-term monitoring in reservoirs such as San Roque, Los Molinos, and Salto Grande—conducted by the National Water Institute (INA), the National University of Córdoba (UNC), and the Administrative Commission of the Uruguay River (CARU)—has revealed a sustained deterioration of water quality over the past two decades [25,26,27]. In Mexico, the National Water Commission (CONAGUA) has implemented monitoring programs that include physicochemical and biological indicators; however, the direct assessment of trophic status is not yet standardized in national protocols [28]. Scientific studies have nonetheless reported rising eutrophication in various Mexican lakes. For instance, González et al. [29] documented increasing total phosphorus (TP), Chl-a concentrations, and cyanobacterial blooms in Lake Chapala since the 1990s. Cervantes-Astorga et al. [15], using satellite data, identified eutrophic conditions in major water bodies in Jalisco between 2012 CE and 2019 CE, which are linked to urban and industrial activity. Lecomte et al. [11] classified La Purísima Reservoir as eutrophic to hypereutrophic, while Zanor et al. [13] reported high nutrient concentrations and significant internal nitrogen recycling in Laguna de Yuriria. Meanwhile, in São Paulo, Brazil, a permanent reservoir monitoring network established in 1974 and coordinated by the São Paulo State Environmental Company (CETESB) has revealed eutrophic conditions in reservoirs such as Itupararanga, Guarapiranga, and the Tietê River system, which are primarily linked to land-use changes [30]. Water quality monitoring in Uruguay is scarce and does not respond to a comprehensive or long-term approach [31,32]. However, measurements of DO, nutrients, Chl-a and cyanobacteria have been carried out to determine the trophic levels of lake systems in the region [12,19].
Given this context, it is crucial to plan a more in-depth strategy in the studies that allow for the reconstruction of lake trophic status from a historical perspective. When properly applied and interpreted, paleolimnological proxies have emerged as key tools for this purpose. This review examines several approaches employed to reconstruct trophic conditions in lacustrine systems throughout the American continent over the past century, aiming to identify those most relevant for enhancing historical monitoring efforts and informing sustainable management and restoration strategies.
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Figure 1. The cultural eutrophication process in a lacustrine system results from a temporal increase in nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) loads derived from the anthropogenic sources of these nutrients. Note the effect of the Great Acceleration, which increased water and fertilizer use starting in 1950. The green arrow shows the increase in nutrient loading from oligotrophic to hypereutrophic states. Modified from Monastersky [33].
Figure 1. The cultural eutrophication process in a lacustrine system results from a temporal increase in nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) loads derived from the anthropogenic sources of these nutrients. Note the effect of the Great Acceleration, which increased water and fertilizer use starting in 1950. The green arrow shows the increase in nutrient loading from oligotrophic to hypereutrophic states. Modified from Monastersky [33].
Limnolrev 25 00033 g001

2. Use of Paleolimnology to Reconstruct the Trophic State of Lacustrine Systems

Paleolimnology is a discipline that allows the reconstruction of past environmental conditions through the analysis of lacustrine sediments [34]. Its approach is based on a chronological framework established using radioisotope dating techniques (Cs137, Pb210, and C14) and on the use of multiple physical, geochemical, and biological proxies to interpret environmental changes in lake systems and their catchments [35,36,37].
One of its main outcomes is to establish environmental baselines before human perturbations, enabling the identification of the magnitude, timing, and type of disturbances that have affected the water body [38,39].
Proxies used in paleolimnological research can be broadly categorized based on their relationship with lake trophic states. Geochemical proxies such as total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), carbon nitrogen ratio (C/N), and stable isotopes (δ13C and δ15N) are directly influenced by primary productivity and organic matter sources and thus provide reliable insights into trophic evolution [40,41,42,43]. In contrast, biological proxies are indirectly impacted by changes in nutrient levels, responding to alterations in habitat conditions, resource availability, and ecological interactions. Although there are several biological proxies that are indirectly affected by changes in trophic state, we found that diatoms [38,44], fossil pigments [45,46], chironomids [47,48], and sedimentary DNA (sedDNA) [49,50] are the most used in studies on human-induced eutrophication (Figure 2). In this regard, the use of the sedimentary proxies selected in this review has been essential in documenting historical changes associated with eutrophication in lake systems across the American continent [51,52,53].
The analysis of published paleolimnological studies focused on eutrophication processes in American lake systems shows a growing trend in scientific output since 1995 with a notable increase after 2007. This coincides with methodological advances such as the use of transfer functions, fossil pigments, molecular biomarkers, and high-resolution multiproxy analyses (Figure 3).
Across the American continent, various studies have demonstrated the usefulness of paleolimnology as a tool for watershed management. In Brazil, paleolimnological studies on reservoirs such as Garças, Guarapiranga, Salto Grande, Rio Grande, and Barra Bonita have demonstrated decadal transitions toward eutrophic states, which has guided nutrient control strategies [42,54,55,56]. In Argentina, paleolimnological studies have helped differentiate between climatic and anthropogenic impacts on the environmental evolution of Pampean lake systems [53,57,58,59,60] as well as assess eutrophication processes in reservoirs [52,61,62]. In Chile, von Gunten et al. [63] reported increases in TOC and sedimentary nitrogen since the 1980s in lakes of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, attributed to the atmospheric transport of nutrients (mainly reactive nitrogen), which could enhance primary productivity. Similarly, sediment records from the San Pedro de la Paz lake system (Laguna Chica and Laguna Grande) revealed a recent intensification of eutrophication linked to agricultural, forestry, and urban development [64].
In Mexico, although the application of paleolimnology has been limited, recent studies have documented historical impacts of urbanization, wastewater discharge, and deforestation on primary productivity in various lakes [65,66,67,68]. In Lake Yuriria, Metcalfe and O’Hara [69] identified, based on sediment cores, four periods of accelerated erosion over the past 500 years, which were associated with climatic factors, human activity, and increased trophic status.
This review presents a synthesis of studies from the American continent highlighting the main paleolimnological proxies used to assess the historical eutrophication of lakes and reservoirs. In a region characterized by climatic, geological, and socioeconomic variability, significant challenges persist, such as methodological standardization, limited access to analytical technologies, and the lack of continuity in historical records.

3. Geochemical Proxies

3.1. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Content

The determination of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) content in sediments is a widely used proxy for inferring the trophic status of lacustrine systems across the American continent [41,58,67]. These nutrients are essential for primary productivity due to their roles in cellular processes. However, the distribution of different P forms can be influenced by factors such as organic matter (OM) content, grain size, and the mineralogical composition of sediments [70,71].
Paleolimnological studies have linked historical nutrient enrichment with urban and industrial expansion. In North America, Kemp et al. [72] observed rising total nitrogen (TN) concentrations in USA lakes correlated with the development of human settlements. Engstrom et al. [73] reported a sustained increase in P and N in the sedimentary records of Lake Okeechobee (Florida, USA) since the 1950s, indicating recent nutrient enrichment associated with anthropogenic activities. This shift was reflected in an increase in δ15N values, suggesting a stronger influence of anthropogenic N sources. Similarly, using a multi-proxy approach, Levine et al. [74] documented elevated TN and TP concentrations consistent with eutrophication processes driven by urban, agricultural, and deforestation sources in lakes across the United States and Canada since European colonization. Likewise, Winston et al. [41] reported increases in TN and TP in Beaver Reservoir (USA), along with a higher abundance of Aulacoseira ambigua, a diatom indicative of eutrophic conditions, which is linked to regional population growth. More recently, Manjarrez-Rangel et al. [67] quantified TP concentrations in surface sediments of Lake Yuriria (Mexico) with the aim of reconstructing recent primary productivity. These values were correlated with fossil pigments and OM content, allowing the identification of patterns associated with recent eutrophication.
The paleolimnological reconstruction of lake-water nutrient enrichment is less frequent and scarcely distributed in South America. However, many of them reveal a strong link between the eutrophication process and the land-use changes. In the Piratininga–Itaipu coastal lagoon system (Brazil), studies identified increases in TN, TP, and inorganic phosphorus (IP) in sedimentary records over the past four decades, associated with the urban expansion of Niteroi city, which intensified from the 1970s onward [75]. In the Diario coastal lagoon (Uruguay), TN and TP increased since the 1950s, coinciding with the construction of a highway in 1955 CE that blocked the lagoon’s natural inflow and transformed it into a reservoir. Afterward, the lagoon experienced a sharp decline in water surface area, which was accompanied by intensified eutrophication processes [76].
In addition, the N/P ratio is useful for identifying the limiting nutrient in lacustrine ecosystems. In temperate latitudes, oligotrophic and mesotrophic lakes are typically P-limited, while N limitation prevails under eutrophic conditions [77]. This pattern is interpreted considering the Redfield ratio (16:1), which reflects greater cellular N requirements [78]. For instance, Lake La Biche (Canada) has shown N limitation in elevated P concentrations, as evidenced by a declining N/P ratio, favoring N2-fixing cyanobacteria [79]. In contrast, Lake Waco (Texas) exhibited an increasing N/P ratio associated with enhanced biological N2 fixation, which was insufficient to compensate for denitrification losses [80].

3.2. C/N Ratio

The carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C/N) is a commonly used paleolimnological proxy for inferring the origin and source of sedimentary OM and detecting historical changes in lake primary productivity across various regions of the American continent [74,81,82]. Low C/N values (4–10) are typically associated with algal-derived OM, whereas higher values (>20) reflect a predominant contribution from vascular plants [83,84,85]. However, this ratio must be interpreted with caution, as it can be influenced by early diagenesis, biological nitrogen fixation by cyanobacteria, or anthropogenic nutrient inputs [86,87].
Therefore, integrating the C/N ratio with other geochemical proxies (e.g., δ13C, δ15N, TN, and TP) significantly enhances the accuracy for reconstructing OM sources and past trophic states, particularly in tropical and subtropical systems where rapid decomposition can alter the original signal (Figure 4) [82,88].
In Latin America, several studies have successfully employed the C/N ratio as an effective proxy for reconstructing changes in primary productivity and trophic status [81,87]. In Brazilian reservoirs, values below eight have been associated with hypereutrophic conditions driven by land-use changes [42,54,55,87]. A representative case is the Garças Reservoir (São Paulo), where Costa-Böddeker et al. [54] reported high TN and C/N values (~15) around 1938 CE, which were attributed to the flooding of terrestrial vegetation following dam construction. By 2005 CE, a marked decline in the C/N ratio (<8) was recorded, which was associated with increased algal productivity and, consequently, progressive eutrophication.
Paleolimnological studies in Lake Izabal (Guatemala), a highly eutrophic system affected by urbanization and agricultural activities, have shown increasing concentrations of total organic carbon (TOC) and TN since the 1950s, alongside a decreasing C/N ratio (from 14.6 during 1700s to 9.6 in present), indicating a greater phytoplankton contribution to the sedimentary OM pool [89].
In North America, paleolimnological studies by Schindler et al. [79] and Levine et al. [74] on Lakes Champlain and La Biche, respectively, reported low C/N values in sediment layers corresponding to periods before major human settlement (e.g., 8.3–8.5), and even lower values from the 20th century onwards, ranging between 7.4 and 7.8 in the most recent sediments. The authors inferred that the C/N ratio value decline is consistent with the dominance of algal populations as primary producers contributing the majority of the OM. The mentioned pattern is linked to increased nutrient levels observed in recent sediments, which have been driven by various land-use changes within the respective catchments.
Similarly, Gushulak et al. [51] observed relatively high C/N ratios in 19th century sediments from Lake Manitoba (Canada), which declined throughout the 20th century. These findings reinforce the value of the C/N ratio as a key tool for reconstructing trophic history in lakes and reservoirs under different scenarios of anthropogenic pressure.

3.3. Stable Isotopes

The analysis of stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotopes in lake sediments provides valuable insights into the origin of organic matter (OM), trophic state changes, and nutrient transfer dynamics throughout the food web [90,91,92]. This approach, known as isotopic paleolimnology, has proven effective in reconstructing changes in lake primary productivity [43,93,94].
The carbon isotopic signal integrates biological processes such as photosynthesis, allowing for the assessment of plankton community composition and productivity [95]. Algae and C3 plants exhibit similar δ13C values (~−25 to −29‰), while C4 plants display more enriched signatures (−10 to −15‰), making it possible to distinguish among different groups of photosynthetic organisms producing OM [91,96] (Figure 3). Under low-productivity conditions, algae preferentially assimilate 12C, resulting in more 13C-depleted OM. In contrast, under advanced eutrophication, algae increasingly assimilate 13C, leading to higher δ13C values in sediments (Figure 4) [97].
Nitrogen isotopic composition (δ15N) can be also used to infer the OM origin. Elevated δ15N values (~8.5‰) typically reflect algal sources, while lower values (~0.5‰) are characteristic of terrestrial vegetation [97]. As lakes transition from oligotrophic to eutrophic conditions, δ15N values tend to increase [98,99]. However, in hypereutrophic conditions, this trend may reverse due to N2 fixation by cyanobacteria, which introduces isotopically lighter N and reduces δ15N values in sediments [100].
Stable isotope ratios also provide valuable means to trace anthropogenic sources of OM. Wastewater and agricultural runoff typically yield more negative δ13C and more positive δ15N signals [94,101]. Different N sources derived from human activities exhibit distinct isotopic signatures [102,103], which can be used to infer shifts in trophic structure and ecological dynamics [104].
Recent studies have demonstrated the usefulness of stable isotopes for evaluating trophic changes. For instance, in Brazil, Fontana et al. [55] used δ13C and δ15N composition to characterize OM sources and determine the onset of eutrophication in the Guarapiranga Reservoir, reporting high δ15N values reaching up to 10‰ in recent sediments as a response to increasing eutrophication. Similarly, Wengrat et al. [42] documented δ15N values as high as 13.7‰ in eutrophic Brazilian reservoirs.
Regarding δ13C values, some lake studies have reported increasing values during eutrophication episodes, which are attributed to the enrichment of OM in δ13C due to elevated phytoplanktonic productivity [98,105]. However, this effect is not consistently observed in reservoirs and several lakes, where δ13C values tend to decrease in recent decades. In these cases, decadal δ13C trends appear to be more strongly influenced by factors other than primary productivity [42,55,80]. For example, Rosenmeier et al. [94] in Lake Petén Itzá (Guatemala), Torres et al. [43] in lakes from Florida (USA), and Hennemann et al. [87] in Lake Peri (southern Brazil), all reported a declining trend in δ13C values in recent sediments (e.g., −25.58‰) compared to mid-20th century values (e.g., −20.85‰). This decline has been attributed to an increasing contribution of bacteria-derived carbon to sedimentary biomass as well as the influx of domestic effluents enriched in 12C.

4. Biological Proxies

Biological proxies are valuable tools for the paleolimnological reconstruction of lake trophic state, as they reflect past environmental and ecological conditions [42,68]. These proxies consist of taxa characterized by low tolerance to environmental change, broad geographic distribution, and high abundance, making them reliable proxies for inferring historical ecological variations [106]. Biological indicators have been widely used to infer changes in primary productivity and nutrient levels (P and N) in lacustrine systems, primarily through the application of transfer functions [107], analyses of species composition and abundance [66,81,108], and various multivariate statistical techniques [81,109,110,111,112].

4.1. Diatoms

Diatoms are siliceous microalgae widely employed as paleolimnological indicators because of their resistance to degradation and excellent sediment preservation [113]. Their distribution closely tracks environmental factors such as pH and nutrient concentrations, making them highly sensitive proxies for reconstructing past trophic states in lacustrine systems [114,115].
The taxonomic identification of diatom assemblages relies on both light microscopy [54,68,116] and scanning electron microscopy [117,118], which permit precise frustule characterization and species-level classification.
In North America, highly accurate diatom-based transfer functions have been developed to estimate historical TP concentrations, validating their application for trophic-level monitoring [107,116,119,120] (Table 1). Moreover, fossil-diatom data combined with weighted-averaging (WA) techniques have revealed nutrient-driven increases in trophic status associated with agricultural expansion and urban development since 1900 CE [121,122].
In Mexico, an integrative approach combining Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA), Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA), and diatom assemblage data has been used to reconstruct lake-productivity changes. These studies document eutrophication linked to urban and agricultural growth [111,118,123]. Caballero et al. [108] used diatom taxonomy and geochemical analyses to demonstrate intensified land use in the Lake Balamtetik catchment since the 1940s. This study inferred an increased erosion and elevated trophic status associated with deforestation as well as agricultural and urban expansion at local and regional scales. More recently, Caballero et al. [68] applied a multi-proxy framework to Lake Montebello, distinguishing three lake stages over the last century, due to human-induced ecological changes.
In South America, diatom records have been used to assess historical environmental impacts [124]. Vélez et al. [88] assessed diatom community change in the sedimentary record of Lake Pedro Palo (Colombia) and proposed that anthropogenic activities, such as burning and deforestation, increased nutrient loading to the lake during pre-Columbian times. García-Rodríguez et al. [81] correlated shifts in diatom diversity and abundance with other sedimentary proxies such as the C/N ratio and fossil pigments to reconstruct trophic changes in Lake Blanca (Uruguay), which are driven by livestock and forestry. Tudurí et al. [125] identified associations of Staurosirella martyi, Staurosira brevistriata, Amphora copulata, Amphora veneta, Nitzschia sp., and Bacillaria paradoxa with elevated eutrophic conditions in Uruguayan coastal lagoon sediments. In the São Paulo metropolitan area, Costa-Böddeker et al. [54] and Fontana et al. [55] reconstructed reservoir eutrophication histories from diatom community shifts and geochemical indicators. In Guarapiranga Reservoir, eutrophic taxa (Cyclotella meneghiniana, Nitzschia sp.) dominate recent sediments, reflecting eutrophication since the 1970s due to rapid population growth. In Garças Reservoir, Discostella stelligera is abundant in recent decades, which is related to deforestation and hydrological changes, while Aulacoseira granulata remains prevalent throughout the 1898 CE–2005 CE sedimentary record, which is indicative of episodic erosion events. In Argentina, fossil-diatom analyses have effectively distinguished natural versus anthropogenic environmental changes by tracking shifts in relative abundance and community structure [126]. López-Blanco et al. [112] found that Aulacoseira granulata dominated early sediments of Laguna Blanca Grande, but in upper layers was supplanted by its variety angustissima, reflecting differences in ecological preference under changing trophic conditions. This shift coincides with nutrient enrichment and the construction of a floodgate during the last century, which was driven by population growth and land use change. In Northern Patagonia (Chile), Sepúlveda-Zúñiga et al. [127] reported a compositional diatom change at 1750 CE, such as an increase in large Aulacoseira spp., and the appearance of Tabellaria flocculosa at 1900 CE in Lake Pichilaguna. The authors relate these changes to the intensification of anthropogenic activities during the 19th century in the region, including the foundation of towns near Lake Pichilaguna.
Despite their efficacy, diatoms present certain limitations as paleolimnological proxies [128]. Paleoecological studies often assume that diatom ecological preferences remain constant over time; however, evidence indicates that diatom communities can alter their environmental responses under changing climatic and ecological conditions [129,130].

4.2. Fossil Pigments

The analysis of fossil pigments represents a paleolimnological tool that complements the study of microfossils. These compounds, primarily derived from algae, cyanobacteria, and aquatic macrophytes, can be preserved in lake sediments over long timescales, even after the degradation of morphological remains [131]. Their preservation is favored by the water-insoluble nature of these lipophilic molecules, which, due to their sensitivity to light and oxygen, are even better preserved in anoxic and aphotic environments, such as deep eutrophic lakes [132,133].
The chemical structure of pigments allows the identification of specific groups of primary producers. Chlorophyll a, β-carotene, and pheophytin a are commonly used markers of algal biomass and paleoproductivity [62,134]. Carotenoids such as lutein, zeaxanthin, echinenone, canthaxanthin, and myxoxanthophyll indicate the presence of chlorophytes and cyanobacteria, which are groups often associated with elevated trophic states [47,135,136]. Furthermore, degradation products of chlorophylls reflect post-depositional processes such as anoxia or water column stratification [131].
The analysis of fossil pigments using spectrophotometry and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) has proven to be a reliable tool for reconstructing historical eutrophication processes [53,57,68,108,137,138,139,140,141,142,143].
Several paleolimnological studies in North American lakes have inferred increases in algal biomass, particularly in the contribution of cyanobacteria and chlorophytes, based on the rise in fossil pigment concentrations. Engstrom et al. [73] reported a marked increase in primary production in Lake Okeechobee (USA) after the 1950s, which was evidenced by a three to tenfold rise in fossil pigment markers from bloom-forming taxa. These included chlorophytes (pheophytin b), colonial cyanobacteria (canthaxanthin), and mixed-source pigments (lutein–zeaxanthin). Moreover, the ratio of diatom pigments (diatoxanthin) to bloom-forming taxa (lutein–zeaxanthin) declined by 50%, suggesting a shift in community composition toward bloom-dominant taxa. Cyanobacterial pigments such as canthaxanthin, echinenone, myxoxanthophyll, and zeaxanthin (also a green algal marker) showed significantly higher concentrations in surface sediments compared to the basal sections of sediment cores from Lake Saint-Augustin and Lake Diefenbaker [137,144]. Comparative paleolimnological studies between Canadian lakes within the same basin (Manitoba and Winnipeg) using fossil pigments and geochemical indicators have revealed divergent algal community responses to eutrophication. Despite marked increases in lake production during the early 20th century, Lake Manitoba has not undergone the abrupt shift toward N2-fixing cyanobacteria seen in adjacent Lake Winnipeg [145,146].
In South America, Coianiz et al. [133] identified three distinct trophic states in Laguna Mar Chiquita (Argentina) based on pigment and organic matter data, primarily driven by hydroclimatic variability, with no clear evidence of anthropogenic impact. However, subsequent studies in Laguna de Plata—part of the same hydrological system—documented a recent increase in nutrients and pigments linked to agricultural and urban expansion in the Suquía River basin since the 1980s [58].
In San Roque Reservoir (Argentina), Halac et al. [62] and Mengo et al. [52] reported a sustained increase in fossil pigments from specific algal groups, particularly cyanobacteria. This was evidenced by elevated levels of zeaxanthin, echinenone, canthaxanthin, and myxoxanthophyll, which increased three- to four-fold over the last two decades compared to earlier periods. An increase in diadinoxanthin—associated with dinoflagellates—was also observed in recent years. The authors inferred that these changes reflect a transition toward hypereutrophic conditions, which is primarily driven by urbanization and structural changes in the reservoir. Similarly, in Atibainha Reservoir (Brazil), Cardoso-Silva et al. [147] reported increases in lutein, zeaxanthin, and fucoxanthin between 1993 CE and 2015 CE, indicating a rising biomass of chlorophytes, cyanobacteria, and diatoms. These trends correlated with elevated TN concentrations and were likely associated with intensified eutrophication and erosion processes.
Despite their utility, the use of fossil pigments as paleolimnological proxies presents certain limitations, which are mainly due to their susceptibility to degradation in the water column and sediments [135,148]. Degradation is influenced by factors such as light exposure, dissolved oxygen (DO), water transparency, depth, and post-sampling preservation conditions. Additionally, pigments exhibit varying degrees of chemical stability. For instance, carotenoids are less labile than chlorophylls under oxidative conditions [132,149]. It is important to note that another significant limitation of determining fossil pigments is the high cost, especially when compared to other biological proxies, such as microfossils.

4.3. Chironomids

Chironomids are non-hematophagous mosquitoes whose benthic larvae exhibit high sensitivity to environmental conditions, making them reliable indicators of water quality. Their distribution and abundance respond to specific ecological parameters, mainly to changes in temperature, due to their high sensitivity to this variable [150]. Although to a lesser extent, chironomids are also sensitive to dissolved oxygen, and consequently they respond to changes in nutrient concentration [151,152]. The highly chitinized structure of their head capsules enables their preservation in sediments over timescales ranging from hundreds to thousands of years even when other body parts decompose [110].
The analysis of chironomid larval communities in sediment records has proven to be an effective albeit underexplored tool for qualitatively reconstructing trophic conditions in lacustrine systems particularly in relation to oxygen availability and eutrophication processes [153,154,155].
In North America, Rowell et al. [116] applied a multivariate transfer function based on diatoms and chironomids in Onondaga Lake (USA) to reconstruct the history of P and DO since the 18th century. The study identified thirteen bioestratigraphic intervals that reflected environmental dynamics related to climate, trophic state, duration of bottom-water anoxia, seasonal algal blooms, salinity variations, and the influence of industrial activity and pollution mitigation programs since the 19th century.
In South America, Massaferro et al. [156] documented a recent eutrophication process in Lake Morenito (Argentina), linked to both natural drivers and anthropogenic pressures over the past two centuries, using geochemical data and chironomid assemblages. Changes in chironomid communities reflected alterations in oxygenation conditions and nutrient loading, demonstrating their utility in reconstructing trophic status and the history of human impacts on lake ecosystems. Similarly, Serra et al. [157] reported that during the past 50 years, lakes in the Argentine Patagonia have experienced increased primary productivity. This was evidenced by shifts in chironomid assemblages toward species typical of eutrophic environments and by increased OM in the sediments. These changes were attributed to the urban expansion of the city of Esquel and the development of fisheries since the formal establishment of the locality in 1966 CE, suggesting a clear link between anthropogenic environmental change and the trophic status of surrounding lacustrine systems.
These studies demonstrate that chironomids, although not the main biological proxies associated with eutrophication, are used as indicators of changes in trophic state in lakes across the American continent. The evidence from lacustrine systems in both northern and southern regions of the continent underscores their potential as tools for monitoring historical environmental impacts, particularly those derived from urban development, industrial activity, and climate change [158].

4.4. Biological Analyses Based on Sedimentary DNA

Over the past two decades, sedimentary DNA (sedDNA) analysis has emerged as a powerful and complementary tool for reconstructing environmental history and past trophic conditions in lacustrine systems [159,160]. Unlike traditional bioindicators such as diatoms, chironomids, or fossil pigments, sedDNA enables the broader and more taxonomically specific detection of historical biodiversity, including organisms that rarely leave morphologically preserved or identifiable remains [161].
In the American continent, the application of sedDNA has shown promising results, although it remains less widespread compared to regions such as Europe or Asia. Recent studies in North American reservoirs have demonstrated its utility in detecting historical changes in phytoplankton and zooplankton assemblages in response to eutrophication driven by anthropogenic activities. For instance, Frisch et al. [162] employed sedDNA in Hills Lake to reveal temporal shifts in planktonic communities, particularly in Daphnia pulicaria populations, related to land-use intensification. Similarly, King et al. [163] analyzed sedDNA from Utah Lake to reconstruct the evolution of primary productivity. Their findings revealed that prior to human settlement, the genetic record was dominated by terrestrial plant DNA, reflecting low aquatic productivity. However, by the late 19th century, coinciding with increased urbanization and agricultural development, there was a marked rise in DNA associated with phytoplankton, suggesting a progressive eutrophication process.
In Latin America, sedDNA studies are still at an early stage but have yielded encouraging results. Martínez de la Escalera et al. [164], using 16S rRNA and sxtU gene analyses, documented blooms of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii in Lake Blanca (Uruguay) linked to cultural eutrophication, indicating the establishment of this toxic cyanobacterium since at least the 1990s. In Mexico, paleogenomic studies in lacustrine environments remain scarce. However, Moguel et al. [165] successfully recovered genetic signatures from sediments of Lake Chalco, enabling the reconstruction of changes in surrounding vegetation and aquatic biodiversity throughout the Holocene. Their results showed variations in the lake’s trophic state associated with urbanization and hydroclimatic variability, highlighting the potential of sedDNA as a comprehensive paleoenvironmental tool in the region.
While sedDNA represents a promising and emerging approach in paleolimnological reconstructions, it still faces several technical and methodological challenges. These include DNA degradation over time, the risk of exogenous contamination during sampling and processing, and difficulties in quantitatively interpreting the relative abundance of detected taxa. Nonetheless, significant progress has been made in developing standardized protocols and robust bioinformatic techniques, improving the reproducibility and reliability of results [166,167].
Table 1. Paleolimnological studies using biological proxies for reconstructing the trophic state in American lacustrine systems.
Table 1. Paleolimnological studies using biological proxies for reconstructing the trophic state in American lacustrine systems.
Biological ProxyBasisLocationReference
Diatomschanges in species composition and abundanceLaguna Blanca, Uruguay[81]
transfer function
DI-TP 		Lake St. Croix, USA [107]
changes in species composition and abundance Garças Reservoir, Brazil[54]
changes in species composition and abundance Laguna Lonkoy, Argentina [117]
transfer functions DI-TP
DI-pH 		Lakes Haynes, Canada [118]
changes in species composition and abundance Lake Verde, Mexico [111]
changes in species composition and abundance Guarapiranga Reservoir, Brazil [55]
transfer function
DI-TP 		Lakes in midwestern, USA[121]
transfer functions DI-TP
DI-COND 		Lake Onondaga, USA [116]
changes in species composition and abundance Laguna Peña, Uruguay [124]
transfer function
DI-TP 		Lake Muskegon, USA [122]
changes in species composition and abundance Lake Balamtetik, Mexico [108]
DI-COND
changes in species composition and abundance 		Chubut River, Argentina [126]
changes in species composition and abundance Laguna Blanca Grande, Argentina [112]
species composition and abundance Laguna Garzón and Laguna José Ignacio,
Uruguay		[125]
changes in species composition and abundance Lake Pedro Palo,
Colombia 		[88]
changes in species composition and abundance Lake Pichilaguna, Chile [127]
transfer functions DI-TP
DI-pH 		Lakes in Vermont, USA [120]
changes in species composition and abundance Lake Peñasquito [118]
changes in species composition and abundance Laguna Siete Lomas, Argentina [53]
changes in species composition and abundance Lake Montebello, Mexico [68]
Fossil pigments changes in total and marker pigments concentration Lake Okeechobee, USA [73]
changes in total and cyanopigments concentration Lake St. Croix, USA [107]
changes in total and marker pigments concentration Lake Saint-Augustin, Canada [137]
changes in total and marker pigments concentration Laguna Mar Chiquita, Argentina [133]
changes in total and cyanopigments concentration Lake Diefenbaker, Canada [144]
changes in total and marker pigments concentration Lake
Seminole, USA 		[138]
changes in total and marker pigments concentration Lake Inkerman, Canada [139]
changes in total and marker pigments concentration Lake Winnipeg, Canada [145]
changes in total and cyanopigments concentration Lakes in southern Canada [140]
changes in total and marker pigments concentration Laguna La Barrancosa, Argentina [57]
changes in total and marker pigments concentration San Roque Reservoir, Argentina [62]
changes in total and marker pigments concentration Lakes in northeastern USA [142]
changes in total and marker pigments concentration Broa Reservoir, Brazil[136]
changes in total and marker pigments concentration Atibainha Reservoir, Brazil[147]
changes in total pigments concentration Laguna del Plata Mar Chiquita system, Argentina[58]
changes in total and marker pigment-s concentration Lake Manitoba, Canada [51]
changes in total pigments concentration Laguna de Yuriria and La Esperanza Reservoirs[67]
changes in total and marker pigments concentration San Roque Reservoir, Argentina [52]
changes in total and marker pigments concentration Laguna Siete Lomas [53]
changes in total and marker pigments concentration Lake Montebello, Mexico [68]
Chironomids changes in species composition and abundance Lake Morenito, Argentina [156]
species composition and abundance Lakes in the Peninsula de Yucatán, Mexico, Guatemala, Belize [110]
transfer function Chir-DO Lake Onondaga, USA [116]
changes in species composition and abundance Lake Toncek and Lake Verde, Argentina [155]
changes in species composition and abundance Lake La Zeta and Lake Terraplén, Argentina[157]
transfer function Chir- DO Lake Erie, Canada and USA[158]
DNAsed specific genes
sxtU--Cylindrospermopsis
raciborskii		 Laguna Blanca, Uruguay [164]
microsatellite markers
Daphnia pulicaria 		Lake Hill, USA [162]
metagenomic Bacteria–Archaea–Eukarya Lake Chalco, Mexico [165]
metagenomic
phytoplankton and higher plants 		Lake Utah, USA [163]

5. Conclusions and Perspectives

Paleolimnological research has proven to offer valuable tools for reconstructing the historical trophic state of lacustrine systems, allowing detailed information from the analysis of geochemical and biological proxies preserved in sediments. The selection of appropriate proxies must be carefully considered, as each one has specific attributes regarding sensitivity, temporal resolution, preservation potential, and response to trophic gradients, which presents both advantages and limitations in their application. This review shows that most paleolimnological studies focused on human-induced eutrophication on the American continent have been conducted in temperate regions, often integrating a greater number of geochemical and biological proxies. In contrast, few studies have examined the human influence on trophic evolution of lakes in tropical and subtropical areas of the continent (Figure 5), although these regions are also subject to intense anthropogenic pressures driving eutrophication. In addition, it is important to note that some paleolimnological studies cited here are mainly aimed at studying trophic state evolution driven by other factors, such as hydroclimatic variability, covering a longer period, and detecting human-induced eutrophication only in the last few centuries (Figure 5). In this context, it is essential to extend paleolimnological research aimed at understanding the anthropogenic-induced watershed deterioration processes in the American continent to a wider geographical coverage and under multiple climate conditions. We emphasize the importance of fostering interdisciplinary collaborations that integrate geographical, ecological, limnological, and molecular approaches as well as the development of regional, open-access repositories to facilitate data standardization and comparison across regions and temporal scales. These actions are critical not only for improving our understanding of long-term lake dynamics but also for informing effective restoration efforts and sustainable water management policies, particularly considering increasing human pressures and climate change.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.S.M.-R.; validation, G.A.Z. and S.R.H.; investigation, C.S.M.-R., S.R.H., L.D.V.M., E.L.P. and G.A.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, C.S.M.-R.; writing—review and editing, C.S.M.-R., S.R.H., L.D.V.M., E.L.P. and G.A.Z.; visualization, C.S.M.-R., S.R.H., L.D.V.M. and G.A.Z.; supervision, S.R.H. and G.A.Z.; project administration, E.L.P.; funding acquisition, S.R.H., E.L.P. and G.A.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgments

We thank the University of Guanajuato (Mexico), Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Tierra (CONICET, Argentina), and the Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (Argentina) where this research was carried out. C.S.M.R. and L.M. were supported by fellowships from SECIHTI (Mexico) and CONICET (Argentina), respectively.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 2. Diagram of some paleolimnological proxies used to reconstruct the historical trophic status of lake systems based on the analysis of sedimentary records.
Figure 2. Diagram of some paleolimnological proxies used to reconstruct the historical trophic status of lake systems based on the analysis of sedimentary records.
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Figure 3. Trend in the number of scientific publications related to the use of paleolimnological proxies in the study of eutrophication (1995–2024). An increase in publications is observed with key milestones in methodological development highlighted. The figure was generated using a Google Scholar search with the keywords eutrophication, paleolimnology, proxies, lakes, reservoirs, and American continent.
Figure 3. Trend in the number of scientific publications related to the use of paleolimnological proxies in the study of eutrophication (1995–2024). An increase in publications is observed with key milestones in methodological development highlighted. The figure was generated using a Google Scholar search with the keywords eutrophication, paleolimnology, proxies, lakes, reservoirs, and American continent.
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Figure 4. C/N ratio and δ13C (‰) of organic matter derived from lacustrine microalgae, C3 terrestrial plants, and C4 terrestrial plants. Modified from Meyers [84].
Figure 4. C/N ratio and δ13C (‰) of organic matter derived from lacustrine microalgae, C3 terrestrial plants, and C4 terrestrial plants. Modified from Meyers [84].
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Figure 5. Collected paleolimnological studies assessing human-induced eutrophication across the American continent (a). Geographic distribution of lacustrine systems (b). Timeline and type of sedimentary proxies used. The gray square indicates the time period covered by the study, except for those that include an arrow indicating that it extends back beyond the year 800 CE.
Figure 5. Collected paleolimnological studies assessing human-induced eutrophication across the American continent (a). Geographic distribution of lacustrine systems (b). Timeline and type of sedimentary proxies used. The gray square indicates the time period covered by the study, except for those that include an arrow indicating that it extends back beyond the year 800 CE.
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Manjarrez-Rangel, C.S.; Halac, S.R.; Mengo, L.D.V.; Piovano, E.L.; Zanor, G.A. Paleolimnological Approaches to Track Anthropogenic Eutrophication in Lacustrine Systems Across the American Continent: A Review. Limnol. Rev. 2025, 25, 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev25030033

AMA Style

Manjarrez-Rangel CS, Halac SR, Mengo LDV, Piovano EL, Zanor GA. Paleolimnological Approaches to Track Anthropogenic Eutrophication in Lacustrine Systems Across the American Continent: A Review. Limnological Review. 2025; 25(3):33. https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev25030033

Chicago/Turabian Style

Manjarrez-Rangel, Cinthya Soledad, Silvana Raquel Halac, Luciana Del Valle Mengo, Eduardo Luis Piovano, and Gabriela Ana Zanor. 2025. "Paleolimnological Approaches to Track Anthropogenic Eutrophication in Lacustrine Systems Across the American Continent: A Review" Limnological Review 25, no. 3: 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev25030033

APA Style

Manjarrez-Rangel, C. S., Halac, S. R., Mengo, L. D. V., Piovano, E. L., & Zanor, G. A. (2025). Paleolimnological Approaches to Track Anthropogenic Eutrophication in Lacustrine Systems Across the American Continent: A Review. Limnological Review, 25(3), 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/limnolrev25030033

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