Systematic Review of Economic Education, Financial Literacy, and Transversal Skills Development

Abstract

This paper examines the relation between transversal skills, economic education, and financial literacy in modern education. A systematic literature review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2022 methodology, resulting in the selection and analysis of 49 peer-reviewed articles from Scopus and Web of Science. The paper explores theoretical considerations, pedagogical strategies, and the possibility of integrating these fields into educational practice. It identifies three specific points of research interest: firstly, to identify trends in the integration of transversal competencies into economic education; secondly, to assess how transversal skills impact the development of financial literacy; and thirdly, to create recommendations for educational programs and teaching methods. The results highlight that transversal skills—particularly critical thinking, collaboration, being digitally literate, and problem-solving—play an indispensable role in both learning economics and building financial literacy. While students of economic education gain insight into issues such as resource management, market mechanisms, and labor economics, financial literacy provides them with knowledge on personal finance issues, sustainability, and informed decision-making. An original aspect of the research is the attempt to merge transversal skills with economic education and financial literacy within a single framework. The results also indicate future directions of educational reform and point to ways to enhance students’ financial well-being and entrepreneurial capacity.

1. Introduction

Rapid transformations in global economies, labor markets, and the digital environment necessitate a future-oriented education system that equips learners with fundamental competencies and knowledge. It is within such a setting that economic education becomes increasingly vital, providing not only a site to develop economic thinking but also an essential life skill—financial literacy (OECD, 2020). Generally, financial literacy may refer to the understanding of how to manage financial matters across life’s cycle regarding budgeting, saving, investment, and risk management principles (Lusardi & Mitchell, 2014). Concurrently, there is growing recognition of the importance of developing transversal (or cross-cutting) skills—skills that transcend specific academic disciplines and are indispensable in all professions and life situations. These include problem-solving, critical thinking, creativity, communication, collaboration, and adaptability to change (Trilling & Fadel, 2009).

In this respect, research demonstrates that transversal skills underpin academic and career success and are closely related to the ways people make financial decisions and long-term planning. In fact, as Jappelli and Padula (2013) note, the impact of economic education should not be measured by traditional outcomes alone, such as exam performance or knowledge retention, but more broadly, by the extent to which economic education enhances the competencies students will need to deal with contemporary life and work settings. The view is further reinforced by the European Commission’s EntreComp: The Entrepreneurship Competence Framework, which puts entrepreneurship as a transversal competence that includes creativity, ethical thinking, resource management capability, and acting upon opportunities to create value. Such competencies are not restricted to the start-up of a venture but are important in personal development, active citizenship, and employability for various sectors. From this broader perspective, transversal skills serve as a critical bridge between economic education and the development of financial literacy.

The European Commission’s EntreComp: The Entrepreneurship Competence Framework further reinforces this perspective by conceptualizing entrepreneurship as a transversal competence that includes creativity, ethical thinking, resource management, and the ability to act upon opportunities and ideas to generate value (Bacigalupo et al., 2016). These competencies extend beyond business creation and are relevant to personal development, active citizenship, and employability in diverse fields. In this sense, EntreComp highlights how transversal skills contribute to financial literacy by fostering initiative, responsibility, and informed decision-making in everyday economic and social contexts.

The ability to analyze information, think critically, and make informed decisions is closely linked to students’ capacity to comprehend and apply economic concepts in real-life situations (Rychen & Salganik, 2003). Various international studies, including the OECD’s PISA assessments, have emphasized the interdependence between transversal skills and financial literacy. Findings have suggested that students who display better problem-solving skills are likely to display a better level of financial literacy (OECD, 2017). Despite this, financial literacy is not adequately offered as a separate subject within the typical educational program. This supports the need for economic education to be used as a vehicle for delivering financial literacy in a real-life setting. According to Jappelli and Padula (2013), investment in financial literacy contributes to more responsible saving behavior and enhances long-term financial stability. The early development of such skills during school years can be a determining factor in young people’s financial habits, risk management, and long-term economic well-being. However, cultivating these abilities is not possible without the intentional integration of transversal skill development into the learning process. Consequently, the effectiveness of economic education today is increasingly defined by its capacity to support the integrated acquisition of both financial literacy and transversal skills.

The aim of this study is to systematically analyze the scientific literature on the effectiveness of economic education, financial literacy, and the development of transversal skills. It explores the interrelationships between these three concepts and evaluates the extent to which education systems enable students to acquire the relevant competencies. This literature review offers a comprehensive understanding of the current trends, existing challenges, and potential directions for enhancing teaching content and implementing competence-based education.

This systematic review has been registered with Inplasy and is available online: (https://inplasy.com/) (accessed on 1 December 2025).

The study is based solely on published, indexed literature, which may have led to the omission of relevant studies not included in academic databases. Furthermore, bibliometric indicators reflect research activity and visibility rather than the actual pedagogical effectiveness of economic education, financial literacy, or the development of transversal skills.

This study presents a bibliometric analysis and a systematic literature review examining the role of 21st-century transversal skills within economic education and financial literacy between 2015 and 2025. A total of 49 peer-reviewed articles met the inclusion criteria and were classified into three thematic groups, revealing a growing global interest in integrating transversal competencies, such as critical thinking, collaboration, and problem-solving, into school-level economics and financial learning. The findings indicate that these skills function as mediating competencies that help students transform theoretical knowledge into practical capability, thereby supporting more effective financial behavior, economic decision-making, and long-term learning outcomes. At the same time, the analysis highlights gaps in the existing literature, particularly the lack of longitudinal studies and limited cross-regional comparisons, underscoring the need for future research to explore how educational content and policy frameworks shape the development and impact of transversal skills in economic and financial education.

2. Methods

In this research, a systematic literature review is used to identify the existing literature on transversal skills within the scope of financial literacy and economic education. In order to carry out a systematic literature review, the authors adopted the use of the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) approach, which has been commonly adopted in the conduct of a systematic literature review (Liberati et al., 2009; Page et al., 2021).

To ensure a systematic selection of relevant studies, the authors established eligibility criteria focused on transversal skills, economic education, and financial literacy. A study was considered relevant if its title, abstract, or keywords contained the words “transversal skills” (or equivalent expressions) and “school” (or equivalent expressions). To ensure the quality and relevance of the selected studies, the following exclusion criteria were applied:

• The publication must be written in English.
• The publication must have been cited.
• The publication must have been published after 2015.
• The publication must provide the full text.

The journal should be within the disciplines of economics, business, or social sciences. The choice of the two databases, Scopus and Web of Science, as the primary sources for conducting the literature search is reasonable, as these two are some of the biggest databases that contain abstracts from the peer-reviewed literature, with a vast coverage of different fields (Arezoo et al., 2013). Their comprehensive coverage and advanced search capabilities make them highly suitable resources for conducting systematic literature reviews (Pranckutė, 2021). Search strings were developed for each database. These search strings combined the main keyword categories using Boolean operators (AND, OR, etc.). The initial search string in both databases included two main concepts: “transversal skills” and “primary school”. To make sure that a thorough search is accomplished, synonyms and other related terms were used to formulate the final search string: (transversal skills OR “21st century skills” OR “soft skills”) AND (“school” OR “primary school” OR “secondary school”). The search was carried out within the titles, abstracts, and keywords in order to narrow it down to a manageable amount of literature relevant to the topic. This process generated a preliminary sample pool of 166 articles, which were exported in CSV format to a spreadsheet for picking and choosing based on the search terms.

In a move to make the systematic literature reviews more objective, the titles of all the articles that were considered were screened for duplication in the Web of Science and Scopus databases. Where the titles of the articles were the same, a further assessment of the articles was conducted during the full text review stage, where if the articles were similar, they were not included in the count of articles but were only reported once.

The authors developed a standardized data collection form to ensure that all relevant information was obtained during the data collection process. In the initial stage, the variables included basic bibliographic information—year of publication, study title, and author(s). During the review process, additional variables were incorporated at the full-text reading stage, including study methodology, main findings, and conclusions. Keywords were also extracted from the articles to determine their main themes. Subsequently, the articles were classified into categories according to their thematic focus. The literature search protocol was designed to ensure systematic identification of relevant publications on 21st-century skills, transversal competences, and financial literacy development in education.

As shown in Figure 1, the initial keyword search in the Scopus and Web of Science databases identified 166 articles. First, two articles were excluded as duplicates found in both databases. Secondly, the dates of publication of the articles were considered, which led to the exclusion of a further 10 articles. The majority of articles that were excluded (n = 50) did not relate to economic, business, or society issues. The final step entailed a thorough evaluation of the full text, where a total of 94 articles were assessed carefully. The articles that did not refer to education within the institution, were not citable, or lacked full-text accessibility were considered for exclusion. This led to a total of 49 articles that were subject to a thorough evaluation. The articles were thereafter categorized into three themes, which included: (1) 7 articles on systematic literature evaluation, (2) 28 articles on teaching and learning, and (3) 14 articles on economics.

3. Results

An analysis of research on 21st-century transversal skills demonstrates that these competencies have become a central theme in global education studies. Between 2015 and 2025, a total of 49 articles were discovered, proving that interest in soft skills is on the rise within distinct educational systems. The number of articles started to gradually increase, culminating in a total of six articles in 2021. This was at a time when the global health crisis had brought to the forefront the need for robust social and emotional competencies (OECD, 2020). The trend also aligned with UNESCO’s call to promote “education for a dignified life” (UNESCO, 2021), in which transversal skills are considered an essential component.

Malaysia stands out with five publications, three published in 2019 and two in 2022. This concentration reflects both political and academic efforts to integrate 21st-century skills into national education reforms (Chalkiadaki, 2018). Austria is also contributing significantly, with five publications from 2019 to 2024, reflecting a long-term research stream, especially with respect to the association of digital pedagogy with skills (Kain et al., 2024). Turkey, with four articles, and Spain, with four articles on skills evaluation, the role of teachers, and the effect of teaching practices (Calero López & Rodríguez-López, 2020; Jardim et al., 2023), are other countries that have been actively conducting research on this topic.

Despite the relatively small number of contributions from the United States, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands, these still carry considerable weight in the international discussion. Then, there are a number of other nations, such as Ireland, Sweden, Nigeria, Singapore, Israel, Mexico, Morocco, the Philippines, Zambia, Finland, Brazil, Chile, and Japan, that are represented by a single or a couple of research studies. Such a geographically widespread presentation of research indicates that the skill that crosses boundaries is a universally necessary tool, irrespective of the setting (Voogt & Roblin, 2012).

For instance, the presentations made by countries such as Nigeria and Zambia indicate a rising need for skills that can bring about employability and social integration (Busaka & Kitta, 2022). The research activity reaches its peak during the period 2019 to 2021, which corresponds with the European Commission’s (2019) Youth Strategy and the Future of Learning 2030, which emphasizes critical thinking, collaboration, and digital skills (European Commission, 2019). After the year 2021, a significant drop in research activity can be identified, which indicates a shift from research to synthesis, systematic reviews, and policy development (Holmes et al., 2021). This is a normal course within the development of any research area, within which phases of intensive data gathering are interspersed with phases of integration and interpretation.

The citation patterns of the identified publications from 2017 to 2022 are summarized in

Table 1. Reflection of the most cited publications n > 10 (created by authors).

No.	Title of Publication	Author(s)	Year of Publication	Number of Citations
1.	A systematic literature review of 21st century skills and competencies in primary education	Areti Chalkiadaki	2018	226
2.	The relevance of transversal competences in vocational education and training: a bibliometric analysis	Inmaculada Calero López, Beatriz Rodríguez-López	2020	44
3.	The Effect of Critical Thinking Embedded English Course Design to The Improvement of Critical Thinking Skills of Secondary School Learners✰	Hatice Kübra Bağ, Esim Gürsoy	2021	33
4.	The mission of early childhood education in the anthropocene	Lili-Ann Wolff, Tuula H. Skarstein, Frode Skarstein	2020	26
5.	Developing children’s empathy in co-design activities: A pilot case study	Maarten Van Mechelen, Alice Schut, Mathieu Gielen, Remke Klapwijk	2018	15
6.	Measuring learning quality in Ethiopia, India and Vietnam: from primary to secondary school effectiveness	Padmini Iyer, Rhiannon Moore	2017	14
7.	Secondary school teachers’ perceptions of STEM pedagogical content knowledge	Noor ANITA Rahman, Roslinda Rosli, Azmin Sham Rambely, Nur Choiro Siregar, Mary Margaret Capraro, Robert M. Capraro	2022	14
8.	Influence of school culture and classroom environment in improving soft skills amongst secondary schoolers	Abdul Razaq Ahmad, Fong Peng Chew, Hutkemri Zulnaidi, Kiagus Muhammad Sobri, Alfitri Alfitri	2019	13

. Analysis of citation numbers is significant, as it indicates not only the importance of the identified publications, but also the development of the respective research area. Even though the research criteria set the requirement for the publication date from 2015 onwards, the most cited publications date back to 2017 onwards. The most highly cited publication is “A systematic literature review of 21st-century skills and competencies in primary education”, which has accumulated 226 citations, standing out considerably from the others.

The second most cited work is “The relevance of transversal competences in vocational education and training: a bibliometric analysis” with 44 citations, followed by “The Effect of Critical Thinking Embedded English Course Design to the Improvement of Critical Thinking Skills of Secondary School Learners” with 33 citations. The remaining publications have received fewer citations; however, together they contribute to a diverse body of scholarly discussion on transversal skills, critical thinking, and pedagogical approaches. These findings clearly demonstrate that researchers’ interest and academic debate on the role of transversal skills has grown substantially over the past five years, aligning with broader global discussions on 21st-century skills in education.

Figure 2 illustrates the annual distribution of publications within the period 2015–2025. The data reveal a gradual increase in research activity, with notable growth from 2019 onwards, highlighting the rising academic interest in the field.

Figure 3 presents the distribution of publications by year in relation to their research contexts. The figure demonstrates the diversification of themes across time, showing how different areas of focus have emerged and developed within the broader discussion on transversal skills and education.

For the development of a rigorous literature review on the topic of transversal skills cultivation within the context of economic education, it is essential that the literature review is grounded in the scientific literature with high quality standards. In this regard, a scan of the Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus databases indicates that the amount of literature available on the specified theme is quite limited, especially within the context of content and teaching methods used in economics. This is a clear indication that a comprehensive literature review is essential in order to fill the existing knowledge gap. In this regard, the literature review offered here is, therefore, an important component in systemizing existing findings and exploring future research directions.

For all the selected publications, the researchers performed a quality analysis with a five-criterion tool, which facilitated a systematic and comparable assessment of the quality of the literature reviews cited in the publications. This approach made it possible to identify both the strengths and limitations of various research works addressing topics related to economic education and the development of transversal skills. The first criterion, clarity of research objectives, assessed how precisely and logically the research problem was formulated, whether it was linked to a theoretical foundation, and whether the objectives were appropriately operationalized.

The second criterion, appropriateness of methodological design, evaluated the extent to which the chosen methods, instruments, and data analysis approaches were suitable for achieving the stated aims and research questions. The third criterion, reliability of sampling and data, examined whether data were obtained in a transparent and justified manner, and whether the sample characteristics and data sources provided sufficient reliability and credibility for the conclusions drawn. The fourth criterion, quality of analysis, focused on the depth of data interpretation, the balance between theoretical and empirical analysis, and the logical consistency of argumentation. In addition, the ability to connect findings to the broader context of education and skills development was considered. The fifth criterion, result credibility and transparency of limitations, considered how well the potential constraints, difficulties, and effects on interpreting results had been identified in the studies.

All criteria were rated on a five-point scale, with a score of 1 assigned to low quality, a score of 5 to high quality, and so on. This structured approach enabled not only the determination of each study’s relative quality but also the formulation of general conclusions regarding the consistency of methodological approaches and the empirical robustness of the reviewed literature. The authors grouped the publications by ranking them from the highest-rated to the lowest-rated, providing a structured and transparent comparison of their relative significance.

In order to assess the development of 21st-century skills, including transversal and personal competences, in the context of education and employability, this paper analyzes seven studies, which are summarized in

Table 2. Reflection of systematic literature analysis articles (created by authors).

No.	Title of Publication	Author(s)	Year of Publication	Design	Results	Conclusions	Quality
1	A systematic literature review of 21st century skills and competencies in primary education	Areti Chalkiadaki	2018	Qualitative	Identified key 21st-century skills and their importance in primary education.	Clear integration of these skills into curricula is needed, especially in early education.	5
2	The relevance of transversal competences in vocational education and training: a bibliometric analysis	Inmaculada Calero López, Beatriz Rodríguez-López	2020	Quantitative	Growing interest in transversal competences in VET; collaboration between industry and education is essential.	Further empirical research is needed on competence development in VET.	4
3	Mapping the landscape: A scoping review of 21st century skills literature in secondary education	Kain, C., Koschmieder, C., Matischek-Jauk, M., & Bergner, S.	2024	Qualitative	21st-century skills are not sufficiently integrated; lack of unified definition.	Clearer conceptualization and teacher support are needed for effective implementation.	4
4	A Systematic Literature Review of Teaching Employability: A focus on soft skills	Pauldy Otermans, Urmi Nagada, Dev Aditya, Monica Pereira	2024	Qualitative	Games, activities, internships, and volunteering promote soft skills.	Higher education should adopt active and practical methods for soft skills development.	4
5	Soft skills and learning methods for 21st-century project management: a review	Jason Kearney, Taryn Bond-Barnard, Ritesh Chugh	2024	Mixed Methods	Identified five essential soft skills and effective learning methods.	Active, reflective, and experiential learning approaches are recommended for soft skills development.	3
6	Linking K-12 STEM Pedagogy to Local Contexts: A Scoping Review of Benefits and Limitations	Kathryn Holmes, Erin Mackenzie, Nathan Berger, Michelle Walker	2021	Mixed Methods	Local context enhances STEM learning, interest, and career aspirations.	Local approach is effective but requires teacher support and community involvement.	3
7	Issues and Challenges of Primary Education Toward Implementing Technical and Vocational Education Training to Meet the Fourth Industrial Revolution Demand: A Systematic Literature Review	Latifah Mohd Ali, Mohd Fauzi Kamarudin, Shajahan Maidin, Shafinaz Ismai	2024	Qualitative	Identified challenges in implementing TVET in primary education; lack of 21st-century skills.	Early integration of TVET is necessary to prepare students for 4IR demands.	2

. The studies reflect different levels of education—primary school, secondary school, vocational education, and higher education and the labor market—and offer different methodologies. The analysis allows us to identify both common features and differences, and to highlight which personal skills are considered most important. In addition, the number of citations available in Table 2 provides an additional opportunity to assess the significance of these studies in scientific discourse.

As shown in Table 2, all of the reviewed articles emphasize 21st-century skills as essential in the context of education and employability. The importance of developing creativity, collaboration, and problem-solving skills is already essential in primary education, as shown in a systematic literature review by Chalkiadaki (2018), citing 40 sources, with a citation rate of 226 times. The high rate of citation largely indicates the profound effect of this research on the international community. A comparable perspective is offered by Kain et al. (2024), whose scoping review analyzes 82 sources and has already accumulated nine citations, confirming that transversal skills in secondary education are a timely and rapidly expanding research focus.

The employability context and the role of soft skills are also central to several of the studies. Otermans et al. (2024), who assessed a total of 67 sources (1 citation), emphasize the need for communication, flexibility, and teamwork, with a special emphasis on the alignment of educational results with labor requirements. In a similar vein, Kearney et al. (2024), who cited a total of 38 sources (1 citation), generalize these findings to a different area, that is, project management, which especially requires skills in leadership, negotiation, and conflict resolution. Even though the studies reported in Table 2 refer to a common theme, they vary significantly with respect to methodology.

For example, Calero López and Rodríguez-López (2020) adopted a bibliometric approach, analyzing 34 sources and reaching 43 citations—the second-highest number among the reviewed publications. Their findings confirm that transversal competences in vocational education are widely debated and that this article serves as a key reference in the field. In contrast, Holmes et al. (2021), whose scoping review is based on 25 sources and has been cited 21 times, concentrate on merging STEM pedagogy with local knowledge. The results show that the connection between STEM skills and transversal skills is a known research path on an international level.

On a different note, Ali et al. (2024) analyze the difficulties that come with the implementation of technical and vocational education and training within the context of early childhood education, with a total of 22 sources cited. Despite only receiving a single citation, the research is relevant because it introduces a new element by contextualizing transversal skills within the Fourth Industrial Revolution era.

There are a number of personal skills that appear regularly in the articles that have been reviewed:

• Critical thinking/problem-solving—Especially underlined by Chalkiadaki (2018), Kain et al. (2024), and Calero López and Rodríguez-López (2020).
• Creativity—Emphasized by Holmes et al. (2021), with respect to STEM education, and by Kearney et al. (2024), who discuss project management.
• Communication/Collaboration—Very prominent in Otermans et al. (2024), but a theme common to all research papers.
• Adaptability—A highly valued attribute in vocational education (Calero López & Rodríguez-López, 2020) and employability (Otermans et al., 2024),
• Leadership/self-management—Especially within the realm of project management (Kearney et al., 2024), although largely valid for a broad array of professional instances. The articles use a range of methodological perspectives in exploring the subject matter: there are systematic literature reviews (Chalkiadaki, 2018; Ali et al., 2024; Otermans et al., 2024), scoping reviews (Kain et al., 2024; Holmes et al., 2021), and bibliometric analysis (Calero López & Rodríguez-López, 2020). The number of literature sources surveyed varies from 22 (Ali et al., 2024) to 82 (Kain et al., 2024), thus reflecting varying scopes of research. The citation metrics also consequently reflect the dynamic interplay of scholarly citation, with, for example, Chalkiadaki (2018), with 226 citations, and Calero López and Rodríguez-López (2020), with 43 citations, now recognized as authoritative bases, while the latest ones from 2024 are still in the burgeoning stages of citation-based authority. This pattern suggests a growing international interest in transversal skills and indicates strong potential for the increasing scholarly impact of this field in the coming years.

As mentioned above, the literature sources analyzed in the study were grouped and presented in

Table 3. A collection of publications related to economics or business skills (created by authors).

No.	Title of Publication	Author(s)	Year of Publication	Design	Results	Conclusions	Quality
1	Building an Inclusive STEM Future: Engineering Students Empower over 1200 Students by Designing Innovative Workshops Fostering Women’s Participation in Engineering	Garcia-Suarez, D., Curiel-Enriquez, I.M., Turner-Escalante, J.E., Ocampo-Bahena, D.H.	2024	Qualitative	Increased participation of women in engineering through workshops.	Promotes inclusion and innovation in the economy.	5
2	Promoting an Entrepreneurial Culture: Development, Feasibility and Acceptability of a Primary School-Based Program Focused on Soft Skills	Jardim, J., Pereira, A., Bartolo, A., … Cardoso, M., Catanho, P.	2023	Mixed	Program promoted entrepreneurship through soft skills.	Soft skills foster entrepreneurship in primary education.	5
3	Scaffolding attention and perseverance skills in a diverse population of preschool children in Sweden	Gulz, A., Haake, M.	2024	Qualitative	Improved attention and perseverance among preschool children.	Reliability and resilience promote long-term employability.	4
4	Towards Multimodal Learning Analytics of Game-based Collaborative Problem Solving among Primary School Students	Liu, Y., Dong Ng, J.T., Hu, X., Ma, Z.	2024	Mixed	Enhanced problem-solving skills through game-based collaboration.	Problem-solving is essential in the digital economy.	4
5	Do IB students have higher critical thinking? A comparison of IB with national education programs	Double, K.S., Masri, Y.E., McGrane, J.A., Hopfenbeck, T.N.	2023	Quantitative	IB students showed higher critical thinking skills.	Critical thinking is valuable in the job market.	4
6	Developing and Validating a Soft Skills Assessment Scale for Psychoeducational Assessment	Phuti, F., Koloi-Keaikitse, S., Tsheko, G.N., Oppong, S.	2023	Quantitative	Validated a scale for assessing soft skills.	Soft skills are valued in the job market.	4
7	NEW LOOK AT SOFT SKILLS DEVELOPMENT THROUGH DEBATE TECHNOLOGY	Blyznyuk, T.	2023	Qualitative	Debates improved communication and argumentation skills.	Debate skills are necessary in business.	4
8	Mathematics Teachers’ Perceptions of Soft Skills Integration in Mathematics Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools in Mazabuka District, Zambia	Busaka, C., Kitta, S.R., Umugiraneza, O.	2022	Qualitative	Teachers support integrating soft skills in math education.	The combination of mathematical competencies and soft skills prepares students for the labor market.	4
9	The Effect of Critical Thinking Embedded English Course Design to The Improvement of Critical Thinking Skills of Secondary School Learners✰	Bağ, H.K., Gürsoy, E.	2021	Quantitative	Course design improved students’ critical thinking.	Critical thinking is essential at work.	4
10	ENTREPRENEURIAL TRANSVERSAL SKILLS AND GROWTH MINDSET: AN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH	Ricci, A	2020	Qualitative	Linked entrepreneurial skills with growth mindset.	Entrepreneurial skills directly impact the economy.	4
11	Study on the development of entrepreneurial culture in the university environment	Tudor, LS; Langa, C; Bulgaru, I; Lazar, AN	2020	Qualitative	Analyzed entrepreneurial culture in universities.	Entrepreneurial culture is tied to economic development.	4
12	The divide between attitudes and practical implementation of the ‘Preschool of the Future’ model through the lens of Israeli preschool teachers	Alt, D., Dolev, N.	2024	Qualitative	Identified gap between attitudes and implementation.	Modern education prepares the workforce of the future.	3
13	The new Ukrainian school reform: Achievements, developments and challenges	Hrynevych, L., Linnik, O., Herczyński, J.	2023	Qualitative	Outlined achievements and challenges of the reform.	Educational reform affects future economy and employment.	3
14	Teachers’ perspectives on optimizing manipulatives in teaching 21st century skills in kindergarten	Ramilo, R.B., Cruz, M.P., Geanga, J.P.D., Faustino, J.B.	2022	Qualitative	Manipulatives support skill development in early education.	Early skill development yields long-term economic benefits.	3

; there are 14 sources that are directly or indirectly related to economics or the skills necessary for entrepreneurship, published between 2017 and 2025. Transversal skills are becoming more recognized as a necessary part of contemporary education, with the belief that they are a fundamental requirement for employability and economic development. Perseverance, problem-solving, critical thinking, communication, and entrepreneurship are skills identified in the literature as part of transversal skills, which clearly identify how skills acquired from preschool to tertiary education impact the future workforce and economic sustainability. In early childhood education, the cultivation of attention and perseverance skills is particularly significant. A Swedish study emphasizes that reliability and resilience are closely associated with long-term employability, as such attributes are highly valued in the labor market (Gulz & Haake, 2024).

A similar perspective emerges in the Israeli context, where contemporary pedagogical approaches are viewed as foundational for preparing the workforce of the future (Alt & Dolev, 2024). Complementing this, a study conducted in the Philippines on the use of teaching aids in preschool confirms that fostering 21st-century skills at an early stage can yield substantial long-term economic benefits (Ramilo et al., 2022).

In the current era, digital competencies and problem-solving skills are particularly emphasized. A study investigating multimodal learning analytics in game-based collaborative environments demonstrates that problem-solving is one of the most essential skills in the digital economy (Liu et al., 2024). Similarly, mathematics teachers report that integrating soft skills into the instructional process enhances learning outcomes, as it merges technical knowledge with the interpersonal skills increasingly required in the labor market (Busaka & Kitta, 2022). Critical thinking consistently emerges as a pivotal skill influencing professional success. Research comparing international baccalaureate students with those enrolled in national education programs found that the international baccalaureate framework more effectively cultivates critical thinking (Double et al., 2023). Such skills are indispensable in the labor market, where the capacity to analyze complex situations and make evidence-based decisions is paramount. Supporting this conclusion, a study examining the integration of critical thinking into English language course design demonstrates that embedding such elements significantly enhances students’ critical reasoning abilities (Bağ & Gürsoy, 2021).

Other studies highlight the strong connection between educational reform, innovation, and economic development. Evidence from Ukraine illustrates that systemic educational transformation directly influences both the structure of the economy and patterns of future employment (Hrynevych et al., 2023). In the field of engineering, inclusive initiatives such as workshops designed to encourage women’s participation not only foster technical expertise but also promote innovation and societal diversity (Garcia-Suarez et al., 2024). Soft skills also hold a central place in research on employability. One study developed and validated an assessment tool to measure these competencies, confirming their indispensable role in the labor market (Phuti et al., 2023). Further insight is offered by research on the pedagogical use of debates, which has been shown to enhance communication and argumentation skills—attributes considered vital in business and professional environments (Blyznyuk, 2023).

The development of an entrepreneurial culture is another recurring theme in this body of research. Studies of the university environment demonstrate that higher education institutions can play a decisive role in shaping entrepreneurial activity and contributing to broader economic development (Tudor et al., 2020). In contrast, other studies suggest that the foundations of entrepreneurial culture can be established as early as primary school, where soft skills serve as a basis for cultivating entrepreneurial competence (Jardim et al., 2023). Such approaches not only promote children’s self-development but also create favorable conditions for future entrepreneurial engagement. A particularly notable contribution comes from research examining the integration of entrepreneurial skills and the “growth mindset” approach in education. The findings indicate a direct relationship between the development of these skills and economic growth (Ricci, 2020). This underscores the potential of education systems to serve as key mechanisms for building competitive and innovative societies.

Taken together, these research findings mean one thing: transversal skills are not a “nice to have” but a “have to have” in the realm of personal development and economic prosperity. The bottom line is that from a young age, we begin to develop these skills, integrate them into the education system, and instill that entrepreneurial spirit, and the result is what we see down the line in terms of what’s best for society as a whole, because education has evolved from a simple transmission of knowledge to developing skills that keep us on our toes for the workplace.

The third part of our research consists of publications related to teaching and learning, which are summarized in

Table 4. A collection of publications focused on learning and teaching (created by authors).

No.	Title	Author(s)	Year	Design	Results	Conclusions	Quality
1	Learner-Centered Engineering Education as an Incubator of 21st Century Skills	Dolezal et al.	2021	Qualitative	Promotes 21st-century skills	Learner-centered approach effective	5
2	Towards 2030. Enhancing 21st century skills through educational robotics	Gratani & Giannandrea	2022	Mixed	Robotics enhances skills	Robotics should be integrated	5
3	Overcoming barriers to teaching 21C skills: the Bridge21 approach	Tangney et al.	2025	Mixed	Bridge21 effective in skill development	Approach should be scaled	5
4	Online collaborative PBL—The Bridge21 approach	Tangney et al.	2024	Mixed	Online PBL supports collaboration	Bridge21 adaptable online	5
5	On the Gender Gap of Soft-Skills: the Spanish Case	Ladrón de Guevara Rodríguez et al.	2023	Quantitative	Gender differences in soft skills identified	Policy interventions needed	4
6	Development of Design Education Curriculum for Grade 5 Indian CBSE Schools to Facilitate 21st Century Skills	Bhandari, U., & Mathew, D. J.	2023	Qualitative	Curriculum supports 21st-century skills	Design thinking should be integrated	4
7	Re-envisioning a “skills framework” to meet 21st century demands: What do young people need?	Buasuwan et al.	2022	Mixed	Framework identifies youth needs	Skills framework should be updated	4
8	The Effects of STEM Education Activities on Fourth Grade Students’ Attitudes to STEM, 21st-Century Skills and Mathematics Success	Bircan & Çalışıcı	2022	Quantitative	STEM improves attitudes and success	STEM activities should be expanded	4
9	Criterion Validation of the Scales of Autonomy, Collaboration, Empathy, Problem-solving and Self-confidence of the 3SQ Soft Skills Self-evaluation Questionnaire Adapted for Lower Secondary School	Scippo & du Mérac	2021	Quantitative	Validated scales for soft skills	Tool useful for assessment	4
10	The Learning Office Approach to Modern 21st Century Education: Student-Centered Engineering Education	Dolezal	2020	Qualitative	Supports student-centered learning	Approach fosters skills development	4
11	The mission of early childhood education in the anthropocene	Wolff et al.	2020	Qualitative	Education must address sustainability	Curriculum should include environmental focus	4
12	Influence of school culture and classroom environment in improving soft skills amongst secondary schoolers	Ahmad et al.	2019	Quantitative	Positive culture improves soft skills	School environment is key	4
13	Usability of M-PA21 module to improve teachers’ metacognitive regulation in teaching and application of 21st century basic skills	Karnain et al.	2019	Mixed	Improves metacognitive regulation	Module is effective	4
14	Development of rubric to measure children’s 21st century skills in digital game-based learning	Md Ibharim et al.	2019	Quantitative	Rubric developed and validated	Useful for assessment	4
15	Developing children’s empathy in co-design activities: A pilot case study	Van Mechelen et al.	2018	Qualitative	Empathy developed through design	Co-design is effective	4
16	Fostering Computational Thinking Skills: A Didactic Proposal for Elementary School Grades	Silva et al.	2021	Qualitative	Proposal improves thinking skills	Didactic proposal is promising	4
17	The Effect of Critical Thinking Embedded English Course Design to The Improvement of Critical Thinking Skills of Secondary School Learners	Bağ & Gürsoy	2021	Quantitative	Improves critical thinking	Course design is effective	4
18	The Effect of Student-Centered Approaches on Students’ Creative Thinking Skills: A Meta-Analysis Study	Aytaç & Kula	2020	Meta-analysis	Student-centered methods significantly improve creative thinking	Creative thinking can be enhanced through active, student-centered learning	4
19	Metrics for Students’ Soft Skills	Devedzic et al.	2018	Qualitative	Validated metrics for soft skills	Soft skills can be systematically measured in education	4
20	Measuring learning quality in Ethiopia, India and Vietnam: from primary to secondary school effectiveness	Iyer & Moore	2017	Quantitative	Learning quality varies	Policy improvements needed	4
21	Secondary school teachers’ perceptions of STEM pedagogical content knowledge	Rahman et al.	2022	Quantitative	Perceptions influence teaching	Support for teachers needed	4
22	Soft Skills and Students’ Academic Achievement	Obilor	2019	Quantitative	Soft skills significantly influence academic achievement	School environment plays a key role in soft skills development	4
23	The Nexus Between Teachers’ Demographic Characteristics and Utilization of 21st Century Collaborative Teaching Strategies in Classrooms	Adewale, S.	2024	Quantitative	Demographics influence collaborative strategy use	Tailored professional development needed	3
24	Impact of Anganwadi Workers’ Soft Skills on Anganwadi Children’s Developmental Milestones	Arya, M., & Vig, D.	2023	Quantitative	Soft skills positively affect child development	Training in soft skills is essential	3
25	Exploring the relationship between technological leadership self-efficacy of primary school administrators and 21st century skills	Doğu, K., & Yildirim, A.	2023	Quantitative	Leadership self-efficacy correlates with 21st-century skills	Leadership development programs recommended	3
26	Soft Skills Through the Prism of Primary School Teachers	Ouchen et al.	2022	Qualitative	Teachers emphasize importance of soft skills	Soft skills should be embedded in curriculum	3
27	Contemporary Practices in Teaching 21st Century Skills at Malaysian Primary Schools	Chun & Abdullah	2022	Qualitative	Contemporary practices identified	Best practices should be shared	3
28	Expanded Yet Restricted: A Mini Review of the Soft Skills Literature	Touloumakos	2020	Quantitative	Identifies gaps and strengths in soft skills research in schools	Soft skills are essential but inconsistently integrated in school systems	3

. In contemporary education, increasing emphasis is placed on 21st-century skills, including critical thinking, problem-solving, collaboration, empathy, and digital literacy, which are considered essential in both academic and professional contexts for preparing students to navigate a rapidly changing society and labor market (Adewale, 2024; Bhandari & Mathew, 2023; Buasuwan et al., 2022). Research indicates that the competencies of teachers and administrators play a critical role in facilitating the development of these skills among students (Karnain et al., 2019; Doğu & Yildirim, 2023). Teachers’ demographic characteristics, experience, and educational background are positively associated with their ability to implement collaborative learning strategies in the classroom (Adewale, 2024).

Similarly, Doğu and Yildirim (2023) highlight that primary school administrators’ self-efficacy in technological leadership significantly promotes the integration of 21st-century skills within educational settings. Furthermore, teachers’ professional development, metacognitive abilities, and pedagogical preparedness directly influence students’ capacity to apply acquired knowledge in practical contexts (Karnain et al., 2019; Ahmad et al., 2019). Social and emotional competencies, including empathy and collaboration, are critical for effective learning (Van Mechelen et al., 2018; Ouchen et al., 2022). Evidence suggests that fostering these skills in children enhances teamwork and social interaction, and that gender-related differences in soft skills development should be carefully considered in educational policy and practice (Ladrón de Guevara Rodríguez et al., 2023).

STEM education and digital technologies have been shown to effectively cultivate 21st-century skills. Bircan and Çalışıcı (2022) report that STEM-related activities improve students’ attitudes toward mathematics while simultaneously developing both technical and social competencies. Gratani and Giannandrea (2022) emphasize that educational robotics enhances creativity, problem-solving, and collaborative skills. Likewise, Silva et al. (2021) propose a didactic framework that fosters computational thinking in elementary school students.

Innovative pedagogical approaches, such as project-based learning (PBL), are particularly effective in promoting critical thinking and collaborative problem-solving (Tangney et al., 2024; Tangney et al., 2023). Dolezal et al. (2021) and Dolezal (2020) argue that student-centered engineering education cultivates creativity, problem-solving, and collaboration—core 21st-century competencies. In addition, Bağ and Gürsoy (2021) demonstrate that embedding critical thinking within English language instruction enhances students’ analytical and reasoning abilities. The learning environment and broader school culture exert a substantial influence on the development of students’ soft skills. Ahmad et al. (2019) illustrate that a positive, supportive learning environment enhances social competencies, whereas Iyer and Moore (2017) highlight that the quality of education across different international contexts is crucial for improving student outcomes. Furthermore, Rahman et al. (2022) indicate that teachers’ perceptions of STEM pedagogical knowledge affect how effectively these skills are implemented in classroom practice. Digital games and robotics provide additional avenues for fostering 21st-century skills (Md Ibharim et al., 2019; Gratani & Giannandrea, 2022). Van Mechelen et al. (2018) show that collaborative design activities support empathy development among children, while Buasuwan et al. (2022) advocate for involving young people in designing skills frameworks to ensure that educational interventions align with students’ needs and values.

However, the literature also indicates a 21st-century skills set that can be best acquired by a multi-faceted approach. This includes combining STEM experiences with critical thinking, collaboration on real-world projects, optimizing use of technology, and professional development for teachers (Bhandari & Mathew, 2023; Tangney et al., 2023; Adewale, 2024). For instance, with a multi-faceted approach, students are not only academically competent but also develop the creativity, initiative, and adaptability required to succeed in an unpredictable, complicated, and changing world.

4. Discussion

The results of this systematic review highlight the growing recognition that transversal skills serve as essential foundations for both economic education and financial literacy. Research on transversal competences consistently shows that skills such as critical thinking, collaboration, reflective learning, and communication play a central role in helping learners transfer theoretical economic knowledge into real-world financial behavior (Niemi et al., 2024). This interpretation aligns with the findings in educational psychology, which emphasize that transversal skills are crucial for preparing individuals to navigate the complexities of twenty-first-century societies (Weber et al., 2025).

Economic education is increasingly adopting interdisciplinary and competence-based approaches, reflecting global shifts in economic systems, digitalization, and labor-market expectations. The European Skills, Competences, Qualifications and Occupations (ESCO) framework confirms these trends by classifying transversal skills as highly reusable across sectors and occupations, thereby positioning them as indispensable for adaptability and long-term employability (ESCO, 2020). The integration of transversal competencies within financial and economic education is supported by empirical studies showing that higher levels of transversal skills correlate with improved financial knowledge, decision-making, and behavior (Nogueira et al., 2025).

This review’s bibliometric analysis offered insight into publication patterns, but the descriptive nature of such analysis does not fully account for cross-contextual or regional variations in the implementation of transversal skills. Prior research demonstrates that the development and application of transversal competences differ depending on educational structures, socioeconomic settings, and teacher-training approaches (Sá & Serpa, 2018). These findings indicate that future studies should incorporate comparative regional perspectives to better understand the mechanisms and policy factors that shape the effectiveness of transversal skill integration in economic education.

At the same time, broader research in financial literacy highlights the increasing need for individuals to acquire flexible skills that support sound financial decision-making in rapidly changing economic contexts. Studies point out that financial literacy alone is insufficient; rather, financial behavior improves most significantly when cognitive, social, and reflective transversal skills are reinforced through education (Kaiser & Lusardi, 2024). This reinforces the argument that transversal skills function as mediators that transform domain knowledge into practical competence.

Finally, the discussion suggests that embedding transversal skills in economic education not only strengthens students’ employability but also supports their long-term financial well-being and civic participation. Transversal competences—ranging from critical thinking and collaboration to reflective judgment—enable individuals to navigate the uncertainties of contemporary economic life and act responsibly within a knowledge-driven society (Weber et al., 2025; Niemi et al., 2024). Thus, economic education enriched with transversal skills offers a multidimensional pathway for fostering lifelong learning, social resilience, and sustainable economic participation.

5. Conclusions

Another related but very important issue is that of teachers and curricula. Research underlines the constant need for professional development and curriculum reforms, which should unmistakably endorse transversal skills with project-oriented, problem-oriented, and hands-on learning methods. Most of the reviewed literature lacks longitudinal studies that could trace the development of transversal skills for long-lasting changes in students’ financial behavior or economic decision-making.

Transversal skills play a crucial role in linking economic education with financial literacy and enhancing students’ performance capability in real-life scenarios. Embedding transversal competences, especially critical thinking, collaboration, and problem-solving, ensures learning that is more effective and sustainable. Economic and financial education should be delivered using interdisciplinary, experiential, and project-based approaches in line with the EntreComp framework.

The consistent integration of the development of transversal competencies into education programs requires thoughtful curriculum design and teacher training. Longitudinal studies, among others, would be an integral part of such future research regarding the long-term impact of transversal skills on financial behavior and economic decision-making. The combined focus on transversal skills, economic understanding, and financial literacy contributes to learners’ personal development, employability, and social responsibility.

This systematic literature review evidences a growing international interest in the development of 21st-century transversal skills in education, particularly the importance of critical thinking, collaboration, creativity, problem-solving, and adaptability. The results indicate that these skills are increasingly interconnected with economic education and financial literacy, functioning as mediating competencies that help students transform theoretical knowledge into practical capability. At the same time, the review highlights significant limitations in the literature—most notably the lack of longitudinal studies, insufficient cross-regional comparisons, and underexplored links between the development of transversal skills and national education policy frameworks. Future research should, therefore, focus on the analysis of long-term changes, the evaluation of policy and contextual differences, and a deeper investigation of the mechanisms through which transversal skills influence students’ financial behavior and the quality of economic decision-making.

Although this study focuses specifically on school-age children within the formal education system, the relevance of financial literacy, economic education, and transversal skills extends beyond this population. Their development is equally important in adult learning and non-formal education settings, particularly in fields such as social work, where practitioners engage with diverse groups and support lifelong learning processes. While an in-depth examination of these contexts falls outside the defined scope of the present research, future studies could productively explore how these competencies manifest and are strengthened across different stages of life and educational environments.

The systematic review highlights a substantial lack of longitudinal studies, which limits the current understanding of long-term changes in financial behavior. Future research could employ repeated measurements over extended periods and incorporate behavioral indicators to more accurately identify enduring changes and their impact on financial habits and decision-making.