Abstract
Twice-exceptional (2e) students who demonstrate high potential alongside disability-related needs are frequently underserved in inclusive classrooms, which in part might be related to teachers’ limited preparation. This qualitative phenomenological study aims to explore Saudi teachers’ perceptions of professional development (PD) needs for identifying and supporting 2e students in inclusive public schools. We conducted in-depth semi-structured interviews with 12 teachers (7 male, 5 female; ages 25–55) from four schools in Hail city. Five were general education teachers, three were gifted education teachers, and four were special education teachers. After analyzing the data, the findings revealed three major themes and several subthemes: (a) Understanding the Unique Needs of 2e Students, (b) Barriers to Effective Teacher Training, and (c) Impact of Inadequate Training on Teaching and Learning. The study findings offer insights into the gap between teachers’ conceptual awareness and their practical preparedness, suggesting that practice-oriented training is perceived as a critical need for successful identification and educational support for 2e students in the inclusive classroom.
1. Introduction
Education systems have increasingly endorsed inclusive and appropriate settings for all students (UNESCO, 2020). Yet, the needs of twice-exceptional (2e) students remain largely unmet in such settings (Gierczyk & Hornby, 2021). A major barrier to effective education for 2e students is the lack of specialized teacher training, which limits teachers’ capacity to identify and support 2e students who are both gifted and have learning disabilities (Bianco & Leech, 2010; Foley-Nicpon et al., 2013; Gierczyk & Hornby, 2021). Several studies identified various educational challenges faced by 2e students and their teachers (Foley-Nicpon et al., 2010; Gierczyk & Hornby, 2021; Rizzo et al., 2025). One of the most critical and widely recognized issues is the masking effect, where one aspect of a student’s dual exceptionalities (giftedness and disability) obscures the other, making accurate identification difficult (Baldwin et al., 2015; Yssel et al., 2020). As a result, 2e students’ capabilities might be misinterpreted, and therefore, they receive inappropriate education.
2e students are seen as those students who may exhibit high cognitive potential while having disabilities at the same time, such as dyslexia, learning disabilities, ADHD, or autism spectrum disorders (Foley-Nicpon et al., 2010; Silverman, 2009). Providing appropriate identification for 2e students is critical because it allows educators to understand each student’s multiple needs and design and implement individualized strategies that nurture their strengths and accommodate their challenges. However, teacher preparation programs in many countries, including Saudi Arabia, are often insufficiently equipped, and many teachers are unprepared to address these dual needs of 2e students in the inclusive setting (Alsamani et al., 2026; Gierczyk & Hornby, 2021).
The understanding of twice-exceptionality moves beyond the simple notion that giftedness represents strength and disability comes with challenges. The interaction between the two terms often creates complex manifestations. For instance, gifted students may face the ‘forced choice dilemma’ (Gross, 1989), where they attempt to mask their abilities to fit in socially with peers. This may lead to transforming a potential strength into a social–emotional challenge. Students with disabilities may also sometimes develop compensatory strategies that appear as unique cognitive strengths. Furthermore, while this study utilizes terms such as Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) to align with current school identification protocols, we acknowledge the growing influence of the neurodiversity paradigm. This perspective views such conditions as natural variations in human cognition that require us to provide supportive environments for 2e learners (Armstrong, 2011).
Previous research has investigated teachers’ understanding of 2e students. A study by Dimitriadis et al. (2021) found that even teachers with training in gifted education lacked comprehensive knowledge about the needs of 2e students. Furthermore, teacher decisions regarding their referrals to gifted programs may be influenced by existing disability labels for 2e students, given that, when compared to general or gifted education teachers, special education teachers were less likely to refer 2e students to gifted programs (Bianco & Leech, 2010). This is an issue of concern that could lead to limited opportunities for 2e students to access enrichment programs.
To better support 2e students, scholars advocate for an educational approach that fosters strengths and addresses difficulties at the same time (Gierczyk & Hornby, 2021). This requires preparing teachers by applying systemic changes to both pre-service teacher education and ongoing professional development. Foley-Nicpon et al. (2013) conducted a survey with 317 educators and found that gifted education teachers were found to be more likely to understand twice-exceptionality than general education teachers (Foley-Nicpon et al., 2013). It can be argued that, to better support 2e students in the inclusive classroom, teachers should be prepared, and the education system should be supportive.
Inadequate professional development and limited educator preparation regarding twice-exceptionality were identified as barriers to the identification and effective support of 2e students in inclusive settings (Gierczyk & Hornby, 2021). Cody et al. (2022) argued that teachers holding positive views toward 2e students is insufficient without the needed skills to address their unique needs. Training, however, may support more effective practices provided for 2e students (Cody et al., 2022). These suggested practices for 2e students include applying differentiated instruction and providing social–emotional support (Keesey & Highbaugh, 2018).
The lack of targeted teacher training has real consequences for 2e students, according to the literature. Beyond academic difficulties, 2e students may experience social and emotional difficulties, which can sometimes stem from the frustration of asynchronous development (e.g., having high cognitive abilities alongside specific difficulties) (Foley-Nicpon et al., 2013). For example, in a seminal work, S. M. Baum et al. (1998) expressed that gifted students with learning disabilities may demonstrate behavioral difficulties or underperform academically, which may lead their teachers to interpret these behaviors as disciplinary issues. Indeed, without accurate identification and intervention, these students would remain underserved, which can delay their academic growth and psychological well-being (S. Baum et al., 2017). Therefore, effective teacher preparation should consider strategies to support the complex social–emotional needs of these 2e learners.
There is growing support for including modules on twice-exceptionality in teacher preparation programs. For example, Colorado, in the U.S., provided specialized 2e training for its teachers that helped improve teachers’ attitudes and knowledge and build a more inclusive school culture for 2e students (Lee & Ritchotte, 2019). Schools that provide gifted and special education services at the same time tend to be more successful in identifying and supporting 2e students (Chen et al., 2022). These findings emphasize the need for change in teacher training programs to foster teachers’ skills in identifying and supporting 2e students.
However, it is important to acknowledge that the majority of empirical research on twice-exceptionality is from Western educational contexts, particularly the United States (e.g., Foley-Nicpon et al., 2013; Lee & Ritchotte, 2019). Consequently, findings regarding teacher preparedness and systemic support may not be fully transferable to the Saudi Arabian context due to distinct cultural and administrative structures in inclusive education. This study, however, aims to bridge this geographical gap by exploring the phenomenon specifically within the Saudi setting.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical underpinning of this research is based on Donald Schön’s Reflective Practice Theory (Schön, 1992/2017). Effective teaching in the reflective practice theory involves reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. Schön (1992/2017) posits that these reflective processes rely heavily on (knowing-in-action), which refers to the tacit knowledge that teachers bring to the classroom. In the context of this study, teachers’ knowledge and understanding of twice-exceptionality are not seen as facts, but rather as the instrumental cognitive tools that enable reflection. Without a robust conceptual understanding of 2e traits (knowledge), teachers would find it difficult to interpret the complex behaviors they encounter (reflection-in-action), nor can they deconstruct their interventions afterwards (reflection-on-action). Therefore, this framework aims to explain why professional development should bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application. In Saudi Arabia, for example, teacher training programs do not address the complexities of dual exceptionalities among 2e Saudi students (Alsamani et al., 2026). Therefore, embedding reflective practice within professional development may contribute to providing better practice-based training for those 2e students (Smith, 2010).
By encouraging 2e teachers to apply ongoing self-evaluation, they may become better trained to identify 2e students and improve interventions for them (Keesey & Highbaugh, 2018). Sellars (2012) asserted that reflective practice helps educators internalize and apply theory to real-world classroom challenges. For 2e students, it may mean learning to recognize when giftedness is masked by a 2e student’s learning disability or when 2e students’ giftedness hides their learning disability. In the context of 2e education, reflective practice is deemed essential for addressing the academic and social–emotional needs of 2e students. Teachers utilizing reflection-in-action can better distinguish between behavioral outbursts and frustration caused by the gap between a student’s potential and performance (Schön, 1992/2017). In general, reflective practice supports the development of customized strategies for each student. For example, a teacher might notice that a 2e student excels in abstract reasoning but struggles with writing.
In terms of professional development (PD) for 2e teachers, integrating reflective practice into teacher training programs promotes continuous professional growth (Darling-Hammond, 2010; Hattie, 2009). Policy-makers may follow reflective practice frameworks to reform teacher education curricula to better prepare teachers to meet the dual needs of 2e students. Despite the growing and continuous attention to twice-exceptionality, research remains limited on teachers’ perceptions of the PD needed for identifying and supporting 2e learners within inclusive classrooms. Existing training often addresses giftedness and disability as separate domains (Alsamani et al., 2023), which can leave teachers uncertain about the identification of 2e students and educational support. In response to this gap, the present qualitative study explores Saudi teachers’ perceptions of the professional development needs to better serve 2e students in inclusive classrooms. The research question of the study is:
How do Saudi teachers perceive the professional development needs required to identify and support 2e students in inclusive classrooms?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Research Design
This study adopted a qualitative research design with a phenomenological approach to explore Saudi teachers’ lived experiences regarding PD needs for identifying and supporting 2e learners in inclusive classrooms. A phenomenological approach is appropriate when the aim is to understand how participants perceive a phenomenon and articulate the shared meanings that arise from experience (Creswell & Poth, 2018). In this study, the phenomenon under investigation was teachers’ perceived PD needs and the conditions shaping their preparedness to identify and support 2e learners within inclusive school settings.
2.2. Ethical Considerations
The researchers obtained ethical approval from the Research Ethics Committee at the Islamic University of Madinah (9144637593). All participants completed a consent form before the interviews, and they were assured of confidentiality and were aware of the voluntary nature of participation and that they could withdraw at any time. Participants had the choice to select the interview time, type (face-to-face or online), and place. Participants were also provided with a copy of their transcripts after the interviews to check and confirm their data. Ethical procedures included confidentiality safeguards, and secure data handling was applied. We applied pseudonyms for all participants, so that each participant was assigned a number in the data presentation.
2.3. Participants and Setting
Participants were selected through purposive sampling, targeting teachers working in public Saudi Arabian schools who had direct experience with 2e students. Twelve teachers (7 male, 5 female; ages 25–55) from four public schools in Hail city participated in this study. Participants represented general, gifted, and special education, averaging 10 years of teaching experience. Inclusion criteria for participation in this study were: (a) being a practicing teacher in a public school in Saudi Arabia, (b) having direct professional experience with 2e students, and (c) willingness and ability to reflect on and articulate experiences related to PD and training needs. Participants were recruited via school contacts. All participants provided and signed informed consent, and their demographic data are shown in Table 1.
Table 1.
Demographic characteristics of the participants.
2.4. Data Collection
Data were generated through in-depth individual semi-structured interviews aimed to gain a rich understanding of teachers’ experiences and interpretations of PD needs related to 2e students. The interview questions were developed based on the 2e literature focusing on: (a) teachers’ understanding of twice-exceptionality, (b) instructional and social–emotional support experiences in inclusive classrooms, (c) perceived gaps in pre-service preparation and in-service PD, and (d) perceived constraints and enabling conditions affecting the implementation of support (Alsamani et al., 2023, 2026; Baldwin et al., 2015; Dimitriadis et al., 2021; Yssel et al., 2020). The interview questions and plan were initially reviewed and discussed with three experts in gifted and special education to enhance the relevance and contextual appropriateness for the Saudi educational setting. Each interview lasted between 45 and 60 min and was audio-recorded with participant consent.
2.5. Data Analysis
Data were analyzed using thematic analysis informed by Braun and Clarke’s (2006, 2022) approach, with attention to capturing teachers’ meanings and lived experiences consistent with the study’s phenomenological orientation. Analysis proceeded through six phases: (1) familiarization with the transcripts through repeated reading, (2) initial coding of segments relevant to the phenomenon, (3) clustering codes into candidate patterns of meaning, (4) reviewing and refining themes for coherence and distinctiveness, (5) defining and naming themes, and (6) producing an analytic account that links themes to the research question and the existing literature. Throughout the analysis, codes and theme labels were kept close to participants’ language where possible, and theme development was guided by the aim of identifying shared meanings and essential aspects of teachers’ experiences of PD needs.
2.6. Trustworthiness
To ensure trustworthiness, we adopted multiple strategies suggested for qualitative research by Creswell and Poth (2018). The utilization of purposive sampling with inclusion criteria, in-depth semi-structured interviews, and member checking aimed to support the study’s credibility. Dependability and confirmability were enhanced through the researchers’ documentation of the research process. Investigator triangulation was also applied to ensure the rigor of the analysis. The two researchers of this study independently coded the interview transcripts, aiming to minimize individual bias and ensure that the study’s identified themes were not reflective of a perspective of one researcher. Following the initial independent coding, the two researchers held several meetings to compare codes, categories, and emerging themes. To complete the process of investigator triangulation, the researchers discussed and resolved any inconsistencies in interpretation by revisiting the raw data until full agreement between the two researchers was reached on the final thematic structure. We also attempted to support transferability by providing a rich description of the research context and participants’ actual wordings, to allow readers to assess the applicability of the study findings to another context.
3. Results
The analyses of the study data revealed three major themes. The first theme explored participants’ understanding of 2e students’ needs that should be met in inclusive classrooms. This theme included several subthemes that explained their perceptions (Table 2). The second major theme that emerged was about teachers’ perceptions of the barriers to effective teacher training. The third major theme centered around the participants’ perceptions of the impact of inadequate training on teaching 2e students and students’ learning journey. Table 2 summarizes major themes and subthemes.
Table 2.
Themes, subthemes, and participant agreement.
3.1. Understanding the Unique Needs of 2e Students
The data indicated that participants identified the unique and complex needs of 2e students as the primary drivers for specialized professional development. In describing these needs, teachers highlighted the specific competencies—such as dual differentiation and social–emotional support—where they perceived gaps in their current preparation. Therefore, this theme maps the essential content that teachers believe must be central to effective PD. Under this umbrella theme, five subthemes emerged: (1) Dual-Focused Support, (2) Social and Emotional Challenges, (3) Complex Learning Profiles, (4) Need for Advocacy, and (5) Instructional Customization. These subthemes reflect the overview review of the participants’ discourse around their understanding of twice-exceptionality.
3.1.1. Dual-Focused Support
This subtheme referred to participants’ views of the necessity of educational programs that simultaneously address the strengths and challenges of 2e students. A participant (5) noted, “2e students require two-way support that addresses both their advanced talents and their educational challenges. And this is what I think is missing in our programs.” Another participant (11) agreed and elaborated, “Despite their high potential, the presence of a disability in one of my students made it difficult for me to notice her giftedness.” Within this subtheme of duality, a participant (12) shared that, “Our current curricula and schools often fall short in accommodating the unique dualities of 2e students.” These reflections suggest that educators are aware of the limitations of their teaching system and understand the need for approaches that honor both aspects of 2e students.
3.1.2. Social and Emotional Challenges
Participants’ discourse included parts regarding the social and emotional difficulties that 2e students encounter in their public classrooms, often linked with their dual exceptionalities. A teacher (2) stated that, “these students have emotional challenges… like dealing with frustration from not meeting expectations… due to their disabilities”. The participant noted that this emotional aspect is less pronounced in students who are solely gifted or who only have disabilities. Another participant (5) pointed to similar social challenge, “Being a 2e student may lead to isolation or misunderstandings among peers…leading to anxiety and self-esteem issues.” Furthermore, a participant (6) stated about what should teachers do, “Teachers need to be aware of the emotional challenges 2e students might experience.” Participants, in general, reflected on these social and emotional issues as points of concern that teachers should be aware of and to be included in teachers training programs.
3.1.3. Complex Learning Profiles
Participants also commented on the learning profiles of 2e students as complex that require individualized instructional strategies. A participant (3) said, “…Teaching 2e students is more complex than other gifted students…they need a highly individualized approach to education, to meet their varied needs.” Another participant (8) shared a similar concern to be met by trained teachers, “Each 2e student presents a unique combination of abilities and disabilities, that educators must employ flexible teaching methods for each 2e student.” A teacher (10) added, “Recognizing the complexity in learning profiles means acknowledging that standardized teaching methods may not suffice for 2e students.” She was critiquing the current education system she worked in as insufficient for 2e students’ complex learning profiles. These reflections reveal that participants are aware of such complexity, and encouraged PD that includes these issues in the training for teachers.
3.1.4. Need for Advocacy
In this subtheme, participants highlighted the necessity for increased advocacy efforts by teachers on behalf of 2e students. One participant (1) emphasized, “2e students often need more advocacy within the school system to ensure their needs are met.” A participant (12) explained how it is dangerous if teachers do not support and advocate for those students in the school, “…Unlike other students, they can fall through the cracks if their dual exceptionalities are not recognized.” Another teacher (3) explained, “Educators must advocate for 2e students, ensuring that both their disabilities and giftedness are taken into account when planning their educational paths.” A participant (8) warned that if 2e students are not advocated for by their teachers, “Without proper support from the classroom teacher, 2e students may not receive adequate support… miss development opportunities.” These insights demonstrate how teachers should view themselves as not only educators but also as advocates who ensure that 2e students’ rights and needs are represented within institutional systems. The participants’ overall discourse encouraged that advocacy for 2e students should be part of PD for all teachers.
3.1.5. Instructional Customization
Customized instruction emerged as a key necessity for supporting 2e learners that all teachers must be aware of. A participant (4) remarked about what teachers should do when teaching 2e students, “Teaching 2e students needs to be highly customized… we should combine strategies from special education and gifted.” Another participant (9) added, “No one teaching way could work for all 2e students…teachers should be prepared to adapt their teaching methods to meet each 2e student’s special needs.” Another participant (12) explained how teachers should be trained to provide the right level of challenging task for each 2e student, “…teachers can ensure that they are providing 2e students with the appropriate level of challenge and support… so these students can reach their full potential.” These reflections highlight the participants’ views about the importance of teachers being prepared to apply adaptive pedagogy that incorporates both differentiated instruction and a deep understanding of dual exceptionalities.
3.2. Barriers to Effective Teacher Training
This theme identifies the primary obstacles participants perceived that impeded the implementation of effective teacher training programs for 2e education. Three subthemes emerged under this major theme: (1) Systemic Limitations, (2) Resource Constraints, and (3) Low Awareness and Misconceptions. By reflecting on these barriers, participants believe that educators and administrators are better equipped to recognize current training deficiencies and strive for improved solutions.
3.2.1. Systemic Limitations
Systemic and policy-level challenges were cited by the majority of participants as major barriers to effective teacher training. One participant (5) shared, “The current educational system does not provide training on twice-exceptionality.” A participant (6) explored how the educational system did not support training in 2e, “…which leads us to a lack of awareness and understanding of those 2e students.” Another participant (9) added, “There is a significant gap between the training policies and the real needs of 2e students, which creates challenges for teachers.” One participant (12) reflected on training choices, “…teachers are not kept up to date with the latest strategies and interventions for teaching 2e students.” Participants reflected on the point that the educational system may limit training and, as a result, appropriate education for 2e students in inclusive classrooms.
3.2.2. Resource Constraints
Insufficient resources are another substantial barrier raised by participants as an obstacle to effective teacher training. A participant (3) emphasized that, “Many schools lack the needed resources to provide training on twice-exceptionality…so how can we effectively support 2e students?” A participant (9) believed that schools miss the experts to train them on 2e, “The scarcity of expert trainers in twice-exceptionality…when training is available, it may not be of good quality or relevance.” A participant (11) reflected on the limited budget as a critical constraint, “Budget limitations often lead to reduced training programs.” These participants’ reflections highlighted the need for different resources, like targeted funding and allocation of human and material resources, to enhance teacher training for 2e students.
3.2.3. Low Awareness and Misconceptions
In this subtheme, participants discussed how low awareness and misconceptions of 2e are barriers to effective training practice. A participant (5) shared that, “I think we have a general lack of awareness about the unique needs of 2e students…” Another participant (2) reflected on how some teachers are not aware of the needed specified training on 2e, “Some educators and administrators believe that existing general education training is sufficient for teaching 2e students.” A third (8) highlighted how many teachers have a misunderstanding that gifted education and special education provide sufficient training for 2e, despite their separate systems, “The misconception that 2e students do not require special attention beyond what is already provided to gifted or disabled students… it delays the implementation of effective training programs.”
3.3. Impact of Inadequate Training on Teaching and Learning
During the in-depth interviews with participants, their discussions included the potential impact on 2e students if adequate training is not provided for teachers. This theme included two subthemes: Teacher Preparedness and Students’ Outcomes.
3.3.1. Teacher Preparedness
The majority of participants noted that the lack of training impacts teachers’ sense of readiness. One participant (6) stated about feeling unprepared that, “Without proper training, many teachers feel ill-prepared to address the hard-to-understand needs of a student with 2e.” A participant (4) reflected on the identification of 2e that “Inadequate training often results in a lack of confidence to identify 2e students effectively.” Another participant (11) added, “Teachers who are not well-trained in twice-exceptionality can be inefficient and stressful…both the teachers and their students.” These findings demonstrate how reflection on their competencies can motivate teachers to pursue professional development opportunities that build their confidence and preparedness.
3.3.2. Students’ Outcomes
One of the most critical impacts of poor training perceived by participants was its effect on student outcomes. As one teacher (9) pointed out, “2e students may not receive the appropriate support if their teachers do not know how to teach them.” Another participant (4) shared a concern about the impact of inadequate training on teachers’ identification ability of 2e students, which eventually led to poor 2e students’ outcomes: “The absence of specialized training for teachers can lead to misidentification of 2e students…” Furthermore, a teacher (8) shared a concern about a possible undesired psychological outcome, “Inadequate support from teachers can exacerbate the challenges faced by 2e students…could increase frustration.” This subtheme underscores participants’ perceptions regarding the connection between inadequate training and negative 2e student outcomes, which supports the need for enhanced training frameworks.
4. Discussion
This study explored the perceptions of 12 Saudi teachers, gathered through semi-structured interviews, regarding professional development (PD) needs related to identifying and supporting twice-exceptional (2e) learners in inclusive classrooms. The study findings indicated that participants of this study possess a clear conceptual understanding of twice-exceptionality and their multifaceted needs. This awareness held by participants shaped their reflections captured in this study about teachers’ training for the sake of providing more effective education for 2e students. It reflects on how participants interpreted their classroom experiences and how they identified gaps in their own professional preparation.
Teachers’ descriptions of uneven and inconsistent learning profiles of 2e students appear to reflect the masking effect discussed in the literature (Yssel et al., 2020). Participants referred to situations during their teaching experiences in which giftedness hides students’ learning difficulties or disability-related challenges that served to mask giftedness. These experiences were described as recurring instructional dilemmas. This suggests that although participants are capable of recognizing twice-exceptionality, such recognition did not necessarily translate into accurate identification or effective instructional responses. Teachers’ awareness of 2e and actual teaching practices appear to be important elements for teachers’ professional development, according to participants’ views. This result agreed with previous research suggesting that teachers holding an accurate understanding is insufficient without having opportunities to develop practice-based expertise (Alsamani et al., 2023; Dimitriadis et al., 2021). However, investigating teachers’ understanding of the phenomenon under study is critical for readers to transfer meaning from the participants’ perceptions and experiences, as previously implemented by Alsamani (2019).
Participants’ reflections on social–emotional challenges clarify an important aspect of the teachers’ professional learning needs. Participants described several challenges that 2e students face, and teachers should be prepared to deal with, such as frustration, anxiety, and emotional vulnerability. These are perceived as common features of 2e learners’ experiences when their needs were inconsistently recognized or supported due to teachers’ inadequate training. While the participants demonstrated awareness of these issues, they shared a concern about the existing training as it rarely equipped them with effective strategies to address such social–emotional needs alongside academic instruction. As a result, social–emotional considerations often remained implicit rather than explicitly integrated into the education of 2e students. This finding aligns with previous research conducted by S. Baum et al. (2017), which found that many 2e students experience anxiety and frustration linked to asynchronous development. Furthermore, our participants’ sense of unpreparedness mirrors findings by Gierczyk and Hornby (2021), who noted that while teachers may recognize behavioral issues, they often lack the pedagogical tools to address the underlying emotional causes in 2e learners.
Participants also highlighted barriers that constrained their professional learning experiences (e.g., limited access to 2e training, limited resources, and low awareness of twice-exceptionality). Such participants’ concerns reflect broader findings in the literature indicating that professional development in gifted and twice-exceptional education is often fragmented and inconsistently implemented (Townend et al., 2024a). In addition, teachers’ sense of limited preparedness when working with 2e students has been documented in prior research, particularly where institutional support and targeted training are lacking (Rowan & Townend, 2016; Townend et al., 2024b). These findings suggest that professional development programs should be designed to include enabling conditions, such as access to specialized expertise and adequate resourcing, to support the delivery of appropriate education for 2e students in inclusive classrooms.
Teachers who participated in this study also described how much they rely on personal judgment and informal strategies when supporting 2e students. These practices were presented by participants as outcomes of the limited PD preparation. Participants expressed that such reliance increased feelings of uncertainty and reduced confidence, particularly in relation to identification decisions. These findings agree with an earlier study on 2e regarding the consequences of insufficient training for educators working with twice-exceptional students (Foley-Nicpon et al., 2010). Schön’s reflective practice theory provides a useful lens for understanding these participants’ experiences (Schön, 1992/2017). The findings demonstrate that while some teachers attempted to engage in reflection-in-action, their efforts were often delayed by gaps in their foundational knowledge of twice-exceptionality. However, opportunities for reflection-on-action that are supported by structured professional learning appeared in the study educational context as limited. Within this context, reflection remained largely individual, reinforcing teachers’ calls for professional development.
5. Conclusions
This study highlights the critical need for specialized professional development that addresses the unique dualities of twice-exceptional (2e) students. Our findings indicate that while Saudi teachers possess a conceptual awareness of 2e learners and their complex social–emotional needs, they face significant systemic and practical barriers that hinder effective identification and support. Specifically, the study identified a disconnect between teachers’ desire to advocate for these students and their sense of professional preparedness to support them in the inclusive classroom. Consequently, addressing this gap requires moving beyond theoretical knowledge toward practice-based professional development.
5.1. Implications for Practice
There are several practice recommendations derived from this study. First, there is a need for training about twice-exceptionality as a distinct area of practice, rather than as a part of gifted or special education alone. Such training should focus on identification challenges, integrated instructional planning, and social–emotional support relevant to inclusive classrooms. Professional development on 2e should include real classroom examples and opportunities to reflect on personal teaching experiences. Finally, limited institutional attention to twice-exceptionality contributed to disintegrated professional learning experiences. Thus, the education systems should facilitate a supportive teaching environment for teachers of 2e and provide the needed resources, as meeting the professional development needs without such practical support limits the 2e students’ desirable outcomes.
5.2. Limitations and Suggestions
While this study offers insight into Saudi teachers’ perceptions of PD gaps for identifying and supporting twice-exceptional (2e) students, there are several limitations to be acknowledged. First, this study focused on participants’ perceptions, which are subject to their biases and personal views. Therefore, there is a need for future research to consider different research approaches, such as including classroom observations and student perspectives. Second, the study’s participants represented one city in Saudi Arabia, which may affect the transferability of the study’s findings. Future research should consider including teachers from different cities and regions, public and private schools, to strengthen the understanding of this phenomenon. Additionally, the themes identified in this qualitative inquiry can serve as a foundation for future quantitative research utilizing larger, representative samples of teachers of 2e students to examine the generalizability of these barriers and training needs. In addition, the voices of students, parents, and school leaders were not included in this study. Their voices could enrich our understanding of the different needs that should be met in any future PD programs for teachers of 2e students.
5.3. Final Remarks
Fulfilling the promise of inclusive education requires moving beyond general awareness held by teachers toward practice-based training. By integrating social–emotional support and dual-differentiation and identification strategies into teacher preparation for 2e students, educational systems would become better equipped and could ensure that 2e students are recognized and effectively supported in inclusive classrooms.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, O.A.A. and Y.A.A.; methodology, O.A.A. and Y.A.A.; data collection, Y.A.A.; investigation, O.A.A. and Y.A.A.; resources, O.A.A. and Y.A.A.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.A.A. and O.A.A.; writing—review and editing, O.A.A. and Y.A.A.; supervision, O.A.A.; project administration, Y.A.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of the Islamic University of Madinah (9144637593; 13 May 2025).
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study. Written informed consent has been obtained from the participants to publish this paper.
Data Availability Statement
The interview transcripts are not publicly available to protect participants’ confidentiality. For other requests, you may contact the corresponding author.
Acknowledgments
The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research, Islamic University of Madinah, Saudi Arabia, for funding this research. During the preparation of this manuscript/study, the authors used Grammarly 1.46.3 for the purposes of improving the readability of the text. The authors have reviewed and edited the output and take full responsibility for the content of this publication.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
References
- Alsamani, O. A. (2019). Fostering creativity and innovation in gifted students through the eyes of gifted education educators [Doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. [Google Scholar]
- Alsamani, O. A., Alsamiri, Y. A., & Alabdulwahab, R. A. (2026). Twice-exceptionality in primary schools: Teachers’ perceived barriers to identifying and supporting 2e students. Acta Psychologica, 262, 106031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alsamani, O. A., Alsamiri, Y. A., & Alfaidi, S. D. (2023). Elementary school teachers’ perceptions of the characteristics of twice-exceptional students. Frontiers in Education, 8, 1150274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Armstrong, T. (2011). The power of neurodiversity: Unleashing the advantages of your differently wired brain. Da Capo Lifelong Books. [Google Scholar]
- Baldwin, L., Omdal, S. N., & Pereles, D. (2015). Beyond stereotypes: Understanding, recognizing, and working with twice-exceptional learners. Teaching Exceptional Children, 47(4), 216–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baum, S., Owen, S., & Schader, R. (2017). To be gifted and learning disabled: Strength-based strategies for helping twice-exceptional students with LD, ADHD. Sourcebooks. [Google Scholar]
- Baum, S. M., Olenchak, F. R., & Owen, S. V. (1998). Gifted students with attention deficits: Fact and/or fiction? Or, can we see the forest for the trees? Gifted Child Quarterly, 42(2), 96–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bianco, M., & Leech, N. L. (2010). Twice-exceptional learners: Effects of teacher preparation and disability labels on gifted referrals. Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children, 33(4), 319–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Conceptual and design thinking for thematic analysis. Qualitative Psychology, 9(1), 3–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Y.-W., Li, C.-C., Gläser-Zikuda, M., & Kuo, C.-C. (2022). An online survey on challenges and needs for identifying and nurturing twice exceptional learners. Gifted Education International. Advanced online publication. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cody, R. A., Boldt, G. T., Canavan, E. J., Gubbins, E. J., Hayden, S. M., Bellara, A. P., & Kearney, K. L. (2022). Teachers’ reported beliefs about giftedness among twice-exceptional and culturally, linguistically, and economically diverse populations. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 953059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications. [Google Scholar]
- Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The flat world and education: How America’s commitment to equity will determine our future. Teachers College Press. [Google Scholar]
- Dimitriadis, C., Georgeson, J., Paliokosta, P., & Van Herwegen, J. (2021). Twice-exceptional students of mathematics in England: What do the teachers know? Roeper Review, 43(2), 99–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Foley-Nicpon, M., Allmon, A., Sieck, B., & Stinson, R. D. (2010). Empirical investigation of twice-exceptionality: Where have we been and where are we going? Gifted Child Quarterly, 55(1), 3–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Foley-Nicpon, M., Assouline, S. G., & Colangelo, N. (2013). Twice-exceptional learners: Who needs to know what? Gifted Child Quarterly, 57(3), 169–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gierczyk, M., & Hornby, G. (2021). Twice-exceptional students: Review of implications for special and inclusive education. Education Sciences, 11(2), 85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gross, M. U. M. (1989). The pursuit of excellence or the search for intimacy? The forced-choice dilemma of gifted youth. Roeper Review, 11(4), 189–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning. Routledge. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Keesey, S., & Highbaugh, K. (2018). Using high-leverage practices to support twice exceptional learners. Kentucky Teacher Education Journal: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Kentucky Council for Exceptional Children, 5(1), 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, C.-W., & Ritchotte, J. A. (2019). A case study evaluation of the implementation of twice-exceptional professional development in Colorado. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 42(4), 336–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rizzo, L., Pinnelli, S., & Minnaert, A. (2025). Twice-exceptional students: A systematic review to outline the distinctive characteristics through a multidimensional lens. Frontiers in Education, 10, 1696805. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rowan, L., & Townend, G. (2016). Early career teachers’ beliefs about their preparedness to teach: Implications for the professional development of teachers working with gifted and twice-exceptional students. Cogent Education, 3(1), 1242458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schön, D. A. (2017). The reflective practitioner (1st ed.). Routledge. (Original work published 1992). [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sellars, M. (2012). Teachers and change: The role of reflective practice. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 55, 461–469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Silverman, L. K. (2009). The two-edged sword of compensation: How the gifted cope with learning disabilities. Gifted Education International, 25(2), 115–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, D. D. (2010). Introduction to special education: Making a difference. Pearson/Allen and Bacon. [Google Scholar]
- Townend, G., Jolly, J. L., & Chew, A. (2024a). Systematic review of gifted education professional development. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 49, 76–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Townend, G., McGregor, M., Alonzo, D., & Nguyen, H. T. (2024b). What would it take? Enhancing outcomes for high-ability students with disability. Frontiers in Education, 9, 1322872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- UNESCO. (2020). Global education monitoring report 2020: Inclusion and education: All means all. UNESCO. Available online: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000373718 (accessed on 10 January 2025).
- Yssel, N., Neumeister, K., & Burney, V. H. (2020). Students with special needs who are gifted and talented (twice exceptional). Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2026 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.