Teacher Perceptions of Physical Activity in Special Education: Beliefs, Barriers, and Implementation Practices

Abstract

Physical activity (PA) integration in special education has gained recognition as a neuroeducational intervention supporting emotional and social development in students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), yet teacher perceptions remain underexplored. This cross-sectional study examined how Israeli special education teachers perceive physical activity’s benefits and how teaching experience and educational setting influence these perceptions. A structured questionnaire was administered to 45 female special education teachers from northern Israel. The instrument assessed perceptions of physical activity’s emotional benefits, social outcomes, and implementation practices using Likert-type scales. Teachers strongly endorsed PA as a means to foster emotional resilience and coping, with most preferring group-based activities. Mixed activities were the most preferred approach, followed by movement games. Experienced teachers reported significantly stronger perceptions of emotional benefits compared to less experienced colleagues. Secondary teachers demonstrated higher extracurricular promotion and perceived greater social benefits than elementary teachers. Despite positive attitudes, implementation barriers, including infrastructure limitations and training gaps, were evident. These findings highlight physical activity’s potential as a neuroeducational tool for fostering regulation and inclusion while revealing the need for differentiated professional development, infrastructure investment, and policy integration.

1. Introduction

The integration of physical activity (PA) into special education programming has increasingly been recognized not only as a pedagogical technique but also as a brain-based intervention capable of supporting emotional, behavioral, and social development in students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) (Belaire et al., 2024; Bertills & Björk, 2024). In this study, PA refers to teacher-initiated movement activities, including team sports, individual exercises, movement games, dance/rhythmic activities, and outdoor activities integrated into classroom instruction, distinct from formal physical education classes.

A substantial body of research indicates that movement enhances learning readiness through its effects on attention regulation, executive functioning, and emotional resilience (Kapsal et al., 2019; Opstoel et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2022). These aspects are especially relevant in special education contexts, where students often face compounded neurodevelopmental and psychosocial challenges that impede academic participation and self-regulation (Bertills & Björk, 2024).

Despite strong evidence for the psychosocial benefits of PA, less is known about how special education teachers understand and implement PA-based strategies in real-world settings. Teacher-driven implementation is critical, as perceptions and confidence directly shape classroom behavior. To understand these complex teacher-implementation dynamics, this study draws upon two complementary theoretical frameworks.

Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory offers a framework to understand how various ecological factors influence teacher implementation of PA. The microsystem (classroom interactions), mesosystem (school-home connections), exosystem (administrative support), and macrosystem (educational policies) all shape how teachers perceive and integrate PA. This framework helps explain why factors such as educational setting (elementary vs. secondary) might influence PA practices, as different school levels operate within distinct ecological contexts with varying resources, expectations, and structural supports.

Bandura’s social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) complements this ecological perspective by emphasizing the role of self-efficacy and reciprocal interactions between belief, behavior, and context. According to this framework, teachers’ confidence in implementing PA (self-efficacy) is developed through mastery experiences, social modeling, and reflective feedback. This theory suggests that teaching experience should positively correlate with PA implementation confidence, as experienced teachers accumulate more successful encounters with movement-based interventions. The reciprocal nature of belief–behavior interactions also explains how positive student outcomes from PA can reinforce teacher beliefs, creating cycles of increased implementation.

Together, these frameworks guide our investigation of how teaching experience (reflecting accumulated self-efficacy) and educational settings (reflecting ecological context) influence special education teachers’ perceptions and implementation of PA for emotional and social development.

• Aims of the Study

This study addresses this gap by examining special education teachers’ perceptions of the emotional and social benefits of PA for students with SEND and how these perceptions relate to practical implementation. It further investigates how teaching experience and educational settings (elementary vs. secondary) shape these beliefs and behaviors. These findings are critical for advancing theory and informing professional development programs that are grounded in neuroscience and educational psychology.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Emotional and Behavioral Benefits of PA in Special Education

Recent evidence underscores the value of physical activity (PA) as a tool for enhancing emotional regulation and psychological well-being among students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) (Belaire et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2022). In a large-scale cross-sectional study, Belaire et al. (2024) found that higher levels of physical activity among school-aged children were significantly associated with lower depressive symptoms, higher psychological resilience, and stronger emotional self-regulation, findings that were particularly pronounced among children with behavioral or developmental challenges. Similarly, Zhang et al. (2022) reported that emotional resilience acted as a key mediator in the relationship between PA and emotional states, suggesting that movement-based interventions may serve as protective buffers against stress and affective dysregulation.

PA has also been shown to reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety, especially when integrated into structured educational routines and supported by emotionally attuned adults (Anderson & Shivakumar, 2013; Lin & Gao, 2023; White et al., 2024). These effects are not merely behavioral but also neurobiological. Neuroimaging studies indicate that PA stimulates activity in brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala, areas responsible for emotional control, stress regulation, and memory consolidation (Dahan et al., 2018; White et al., 2024). For example, Dahan et al. (2018) demonstrated that adolescents with ADHD who participated in structured motor interventions exhibited measurable improvements in both behavioral inhibition and emotional stability, attributed in part to enhanced prefrontal functioning. These outcomes are especially relevant in special education settings, where students often struggle with emotional volatility, impulsivity, and limited self-regulation. Without supportive interventions, such difficulties can impair learning, increase conflict with peers, and limit students’ ability to participate in inclusive classrooms. PA, when thoughtfully implemented, offers a multimodal strategy to address these emotional and behavioral challenges, simultaneously engaging the body and brain to create conditions for more stable, focused, and positive classroom experiences.

2.2. Social Development and Inclusion Through PA

Physical activity (PA) settings offer a rich and natural context for social learning, particularly for students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), who often face challenges in peer interaction, communication, and emotional reciprocity (Huerta Ojeda et al., 2023; Xing et al., 2025). Structured group-based PA, such as team games, dance routines, or cooperative movement tasks, provides consistent opportunities to practice social norms, including turn-taking, sharing, and conflict resolution (Opstoel et al., 2020). These interactions occur in low-stakes, play-based environments that reduce social pressure and allow for repeated, embodied learning.

Research by Dillon et al. (2017) and Kou et al. (2024) affirms that such contexts can significantly enhance prosocial behaviors and peer affiliation in students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and ADHD, especially when the activities are guided by instructors who model and reinforce inclusive behaviors. These studies emphasize the importance of adult facilitation in helping students transfer social gains from PA into other school settings. For example, Kou et al. (2024) found that regular participation in structured physical education correlated with increased peer support and reduced social withdrawal in children with developmental delays.

These findings suggest that when physical activity is intentionally structured and socially scaffolded, it can serve not only to enhance motor and emotional regulation but also to cultivate inclusive peer relationships and a stronger sense of classroom belonging, critical elements in the success of inclusive education settings.

2.3. Teacher Perceptions, Experience, and Implementation Patterns

Teacher self-efficacy, the belief in one’s ability to influence student outcomes through effective teaching, is a foundational concept in educational psychology (Bandura, 1977). High self-efficacy is consistently linked to increased motivation, pedagogical flexibility, and inclusive practices, all of which are especially critical when working with students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) (Gal et al., 2025). In the context of physical activity (PA) integration, self-efficacy plays a central role in shaping not only teachers’ attitudes toward PA but also their confidence in adapting and applying it to meet diverse student needs.

Recent research indicates that teachers with higher self-efficacy are more likely to implement PA as a purposeful tool for cognitive, emotional, and social development. A systematic review by Nowland and Haegele (2023) found that teachers’ confidence in teaching PA to students with disabilities was strongly tied to their teaching experience, prior training in inclusive methods, and access to institutional support. Teachers who had opportunities for hands-on practice and mentorship reported more consistent and effective use of adapted physical education strategies.

The educational setting itself also influences both teacher perceptions and implementation patterns. Secondary school environments typically offer more structured opportunities for PA, including formal physical education classes, extracurricular sports, and access to dedicated facilities. Rojo-Ramos et al. (2023) noted that secondary-level teachers often work in closer collaboration with physical education specialists and have greater autonomy in using PA to support student engagement. In contrast, early childhood and elementary settings may offer more flexibility in integrating PA informally throughout the school day but often lack the infrastructure and institutional support needed for consistent application (Rojo-Ramos et al., 2023). These contextual differences contribute to variation in how PA is understood and implemented across educational levels.

Together, these findings underscore the importance of both individual-level and structural factors in shaping teachers’ use of PA in special education. Enhancing self-efficacy through targeted professional development, peer modeling, and improved access to resources may be essential for ensuring that PA is not only valued but also meaningfully integrated into inclusive educational practice.

2.4. Barriers and Professional Development Needs

Despite broad recognition of the benefits of physical activity (PA) for students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), its implementation in school settings remains inconsistent and often limited. Common barriers include time constraints, rigid curricula, lack of appropriate facilities, and insufficient teacher training in adaptive physical education methods (Martyn et al., 2022). For example, Liu et al. (2025) reported that teachers frequently cite overcrowded classrooms, competing academic demands, and inadequate space as major obstacles to embedding PA in their daily routines. Similarly, Nowland and Haegele (2023) found that many teachers lack both the confidence and the practical strategies required to adapt physical activities for students with complex disabilities, leading to inconsistent or superficial integration.

These barriers are not solely logistical but also psychological. Teachers who lack exposure to inclusive teaching strategies or feel unsupported by their institutions are less likely to initiate or sustain movement-based interventions, even when they acknowledge their benefits. Research by Shields and Synnot (2016) underscores the role of institutional culture in either facilitating or impeding inclusive PA practices, emphasizing that even motivated teachers may struggle without systemic backing, access to adaptive equipment, and collaboration with physical education staff.

Addressing these gaps requires comprehensive professional development that goes beyond raising awareness. Scholars such as Bertills and Björk (2024) advocated for training programs rooted in neuroeducational principles, which help teachers understand the connections between movement, brain function, and learning. These programs should offer practical tools for linking PA to cognitive and emotional outcomes, along with strategies for observing, documenting, and communicating student progress.

In addition, reflective practice, peer mentorship, and experiential learning are increasingly recognized as effective approaches for deepening teacher expertise (Azevedo et al., 2022). Reflective practice encourages teachers to analyze their own assumptions and evaluate the impact of their methods, while mentorship provides a supportive framework for sharing best practices (Azevedo et al., 2022). Experiential learning, such as participating in co-taught or model PA lessons, allows teachers to see inclusive strategies in action and gain confidence through hands-on involvement. Together, these elements support not only technical skill development but also a cultural shift toward sustainable, inclusive use of PA in special education (Azevedo et al., 2022).

Together, these findings underscore the importance of both individual-level and structural factors in shaping teachers’ use of PA in special education. Enhancing self-efficacy through targeted professional development, peer modeling, and improved access to resources may be essential for ensuring that PA is not only valued but also meaningfully integrated into inclusive educational practice.

Despite extensive international evidence confirming the psychosocial and neuroeducational benefits of physical activity (PA) for students with SEND, systematic reviews highlight that most studies have been conducted in Western or global contexts (Kapsal et al., 2019; Song et al., 2025; White et al., 2024). These meta-analyses consistently demonstrate positive effects on emotional regulation, resilience, and social inclusion. However, little is known about how teachers in Israel perceive and implement PA in special education, where participation rates remain low (Hutzler et al., 2023). This contrast between well-documented international findings and the underexplored Israeli context underscores the research gap that the current study seeks to address.

2.5. Contextualizing PA in Israeli Special Education

While international evidence highlights the benefits of physical activity (PA) for students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), its implementation in Israel has garnered relatively little research attention. A 2022 report on the state of PA among children with disabilities in Israel underscored alarmingly low participation rates—under 20% for daily activity and below 10% in structured sports programs, largely attributed to environmental barriers, insufficient infrastructure, and limited policy support (Hutzler et al., 2023). Although Israel’s inclusive education policies have gained momentum, structured PA remains marginalized in many special education settings (Hutzler et al., 2023). This may be due to centralized curricula, varied resource allocation across districts, and inconsistent teacher preparation. As a result, teachers’ perceived value and practical usage of PA for emotional, behavioral, and social development remain underexplored in the Israeli context. The current study aims to bridge this gap, offering insights with direct implications for national teacher training, resource planning, and inclusive education policy.

2.6. Rationale for the Current Study

This study addresses three interconnected gaps in the current literature that limit our understanding of PA implementation in special education contexts. While extensive research documents PA benefits for students with SEND (Belaire et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2022), the field lacks systematic investigation of educator perspectives—a critical oversight given that teacher beliefs and self-efficacy are primary determinants of instructional innovation and sustainability (Bandura, 1986).

Unlike previous studies that focus primarily on student outcomes, this research centers teacher perceptions as both a dependent variable worthy of investigation and a key mediator of implementation success. The study extends the existing literature in three specific ways. First, it operationalizes teacher perceptions within complementary ecological and social cognitive frameworks, providing theoretical grounding often absent in prior perception-based studies. Second, it examines previously unexplored moderating variables (teaching experience and educational setting), offering insights into how contextual factors shape professional beliefs and practices. Third, it provides the first systematic investigation of special education teacher perspectives within the Israeli context, contributing to a more global understanding of PA implementation challenges and opportunities in resource-constrained educational systems. This theoretical and empirical contribution is particularly timely as inclusive education policies worldwide demand evidence-based, holistic interventions that address the multidimensional needs of students with disabilities, yet implementation remains inconsistent due to insufficient understanding of educator perspectives and contextual barriers.

2.7. Research Aims and Questions

Based on this rationale, this study addresses the following research questions:

• How do special education teachers perceive the emotional and social benefits of physical activity for students with SEND?
• What are teachers’ reported practices and preferences regarding physical activity integration in special education settings?
• To what extent do teaching experience and educational settings (elementary vs. secondary) moderate these beliefs and behaviors?

3. Methods

3.1. Participants

The study included 45 female special education teachers employed in state schools in northern Israel. Participants were recruited through a convenience sampling approach using an existing WhatsApp group network of special education teachers in the northern region. This professional communication group served as the primary recruitment channel, with all group members being invited to participate voluntarily in the survey. While the WhatsApp group included both male and female special education teachers, only female teachers chose to participate in the survey, reflecting voluntary response patterns rather than intentional gender selection by the researchers.

Convenience sampling was chosen due to its feasibility in reaching practicing special education teachers across schools in the region. Although this approach allowed access to a diverse group in terms of teaching experience and educational settings, it may not fully represent the broader population of Israeli special education teachers, particularly male educators and those working outside northern districts.

Participants ranged in age from 24 to 50 years and held either a Bachelor’s (BA) or Master’s (MA) degree in education or special education. Specifically, 27 teachers (60.0%) held a BA degree, and 18 teachers (40.0%) held an MA degree. Despite the convenience sampling method, the sample achieved balance across key demographic variables relevant to the research questions.

Regarding teaching experience in special education, the sample was evenly distributed: 48.9% (n = 22) had up to five years of experience, while 51.1% (n = 23) had six or more years of experience. Educational settings were similarly balanced, with 53.3% (n = 24) teaching in elementary schools and 46.7% (n = 21) working in secondary schools. This distribution across experience levels and educational settings supports the study’s aim to examine how these factors influence teacher perceptions and practices.

In terms of the primary special education populations served, teachers worked with diverse student groups: 37.8% (n = 17) reported working primarily with students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), 24.4% (n = 11) with students with intellectual disabilities, 17.8% (n = 8) with students with behavioral or emotional disorders, 13.3% (n = 6) with students with learning disabilities, and 6.7% (n = 3) with students with multiple or other disabilities. This diversity in student populations provides breadth to the findings regarding PA implementation across different special education contexts.

3.2. Scope and Operational Definition of Physical Activity Integration

This study examines teacher-initiated physical activity (PA) integration within special education classrooms, distinct from formal physical education (PE) classes mandated by the Israeli curriculum. PA was operationally defined through six categories of movement-based activities that teachers integrate into their classroom instruction.

Physical Activity Categories: Team sports encompass collaborative games and activities requiring group coordination and cooperation. Individual exercises include personal movement activities tailored to individual student needs and abilities. Movement games refer to structured play-based activities incorporating physical movement with educational or therapeutic goals. Dance/rhythmic activities involve music-based movement, choreographed activities, and rhythmic exercises. Outdoor activities comprise nature-based or playground movement experiences conducted outside the classroom. Mixed activities represent combinations of the above approaches used flexibly based on student needs.

Key Operational Characteristics: These activities are teacher-directed, meaning that they are planned and implemented by special education teachers at their discretion. They are classroom-integrated, embedded within or adjacent to academic instruction time. The activities are adaptive, modified to accommodate diverse special educational needs and disabilities, and purposeful, specifically chosen to support emotional regulation, social development, or learning objectives.

Excluded from Definition: This definition excludes formal PE classes taught by physical education specialists, unstructured recess or free play periods, individual physical therapy sessions, and competitive athletic programs or sports teams.

This operational definition reflects the practical reality of how special education teachers incorporate movement into their pedagogical practice to support student well-being and learning.

3.3. Instrument

A structured questionnaire was developed specifically for this study to examine the perceived emotional, social, and practical impacts of physical activity (PA) among teachers in Israeli special education settings. Physical activity in the questionnaire was operationally defined through the six activity categories presented in item 13: team sports, individual exercises, movement games, dance/rhythmic activities, outdoor activities, and mixed activities. Respondents were instructed to consider these teacher-initiated classroom activities when answering all PA-related questions, ensuring consistency in interpretation across participants.

It is important to clarify that this study does not focus on formal physical education (PE) classes, which are widely implemented as part of the standard Israeli school curriculum. Instead, it examines how special education teachers integrate physical activity into their own classroom practices outside the structured PE framework. These interventions are implemented at teachers’ discretion based on student needs and classroom dynamics.

As no existing tool sufficiently addressed these domains within the local context, the instrument was constructed based on a comprehensive review of the relevant literature and in consultation with experts in special education and adapted physical activity. The finalized questionnaire, presented in Hebrew to ensure linguistic and cultural appropriateness, is included in Appendix A.

The questionnaire includes 14 main items and 5 demographic questions. The items are grouped into key domains: emotional benefits (e.g., the extent to which PA supports emotional resilience and coping), social functioning (e.g., improvements in peer relationships and cooperation), and implementation practices (e.g., classroom integration of PA, encouragement of extracurricular activities, teacher preferences for types of physical activity, and type of special education population taught). Cognitive aspects were considered during questionnaire development but are not explicitly addressed in the current version of the instrument, as reflected in Appendix A.

Most items use Likert-type scales ranging from 4 to 5 points (e.g., “Never” to “Always” or “No improvement” to “Very significant improvement”), while others use categorical formats such as multiple-choice or preference selections. For example, respondents were asked to select from the six physical activity categories defined in item 13.

To ensure content validity, the questionnaire was reviewed by two researchers and three practitioners in the field of special education and occupational therapy, who evaluated each item for relevance, clarity, and appropriateness for the target population. Face validity was further assessed through systematic pilot testing with five teachers who were not part of the main study sample, focusing on item comprehensibility and response format appropriateness. The pilot study was conducted with special education teachers who had similar demographic characteristics to the target population (2–8 years of teaching experience, working in both elementary and secondary settings) but were excluded from the main study to prevent data contamination. Pilot testing involved individual cognitive interviews lasting approximately 30–40 min, during which participants completed the questionnaire while verbalizing their thought processes using think-aloud protocols. Specific attention was paid to item interpretation, response option appropriateness, completion time, and identification of any ambiguous or problematic items. Following completion, participants provided structured feedback through brief interviews focusing on item clarity, response format usability, and overall questionnaire flow. Based on expert review and pilot feedback, wording and format revisions were made for clarity and relevance. The pilot process revealed that the average completion time was 22 min, within the anticipated range, and it identified specific terminology that needed simplification for the Israeli special education context. Internal consistency across the domains was found to be satisfactory, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.76 to 0.85. Specifically, emotional benefits yielded α = 0.82, social relationship improvement yielded α = 0.79, classroom implementation yielded α = 0.83, extracurricular encouragement yielded α = 0.81, and cooperation encouragement yielded α = 0.76.

Overall, the instrument (Appendix A) provided a reliable and context-sensitive means for evaluating how physical activity is perceived and implemented by educators working with children with special needs.

3.4. Ethical Considerations

The study was approved by the college ethics committee (WG #2023-045). All participants were informed of the study’s purpose, procedures, and their rights, including the right to withdraw at any time without penalty. Informed consent was obtained electronically prior to participation. No identifying information was collected, and data were analyzed and reported in aggregate to ensure participant anonymity.

3.5. Data Collection Procedures

Data collection occurred during the fall semester of the 2024 academic year. The research team distributed electronic questionnaires through the WhatsApp group network of special education teachers in northern Israel using Google Forms. Participants received a brief description of the study, an informed consent form, and the estimated completion time (approximately 20–25 min) through the WhatsApp group communication. The survey remained open for two weeks. A reminder was sent midway through the response window, and a final reminder was distributed three days before closing. The response rate was approximately 76% of those who received the initial invitation through the WhatsApp network.

3.6. Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed using SPSS version 28.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA), with a significance threshold set at α = 0.05. An a priori power analysis confirmed that the sample size was sufficient to detect medium effect sizes with a power of 0.80. Preliminary analyses screened for missing data, outliers, and assumption violations. Shapiro–Wilk and Levene’s tests were conducted to assess normality and homogeneity of variance.

Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, frequencies, percentages, and 95% confidence intervals) were used to summarize the data. Chi-square tests with phi coefficients were used to assess associations between categorical variables. Independent-sample t-tests compared group differences by educational settings and teaching experience, with Cohen’s d calculated to evaluate effect sizes. Pearson product–moment correlations and Spearman rank–order correlations were used to examine relationships among continuous variables and verify robustness. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated to assess internal consistency reliability for all subscales.

Missing data were minimal (<3%) and handled using pairwise deletion in correlational analyses to preserve statistical power.

4. Results

The results provide clear evidence that special education teachers strongly endorse the emotional and social benefits of physical activity (PA) for students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) while also suggesting emerging awareness of its cognitive and neurodevelopmental effects.

As presented in

Table 1. Sample characteristics.

Characteristic	n	%
Teaching Experience in Special Education
Up to 5 years	22	48.9
6 years and above	23	51.1
Educational Setting
Elementary	24	53.3
Secondary	21	46.7

Note. All participants were female teachers employed in religious state schools. n = 45.

, the sample comprised 45 female special education teachers employed in state schools in northern Israel. The distribution of participants was balanced across key demographic variables. Nearly half of the teachers (48.9%, n = 22) reported up to five years of teaching experience, while the remaining 51.1% (n = 23) had six or more years of experience. Similarly, educational settings were evenly represented, with 53.3% (n = 24) teaching in elementary schools and 46.7% (n = 21) in secondary schools. This distribution supports the generalizability of subsequent findings across a range of teaching backgrounds and school contexts.

4.1. Teachers’ Perceptions of Physical Activity Benefits

A strong majority of teachers endorsed the emotional benefits of physical activity (PA) for students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), reinforcing its role as a tool for emotional regulation within inclusive educational settings. Specifically, 73.3% (n = 33, 95% CI [58.1%, 85.4%]) reported that PA contributes to emotional resilience, while 68.9% (n = 31, 95% CI [53.4%, 81.8%]) believed that it enhances students’ capacity for emotional coping. These findings reflect a shared pedagogical recognition of PA’s affective value.

Preferences regarding PA delivery were similarly aligned, with teachers demonstrating a marked inclination toward group-based approaches. A chi-square goodness-of-fit test confirmed that 80.0% (n = 36, 95% CI [65.4%, 90.4%]) favored group-oriented activities, whereas only 20.0% (n = 9, 95% CI [9.6%, 34.6%]) preferred individualized formats, χ²(1, N = 45) = 18.22, p < 0.001. These preferences likely reflect not only logistical considerations but also beliefs about the social and emotional benefits derived from collective activity contexts.

Importantly, the type of educational setting was significantly associated with PA preferences, χ²(1, N = 45) = 5.71, p = 0.017, φ = 0.356. While elementary school teachers reported a more balanced distribution between group-based (66.7%) and individual (33.3%) formats, nearly all secondary school teachers (95.2%) favored group-based PA. This difference suggests that pedagogical choices may be contextually shaped by developmental considerations or structural features of each educational level.

4.2. Activity Type Preferences

Regarding physical activity preferences for classroom implementation (Question 13), as shown in

Table 2. Intercorrelations among the study variables.

Variable	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
1. Teaching experience (a)	---
2. Encouraging cooperation	0.067	---
3. Extracurricular PA encouragement	0.141	0.373 *	---
4. PA improves social relationships	0.210	0.465 **	0.448 **	---
5. PA impact on social aspects	−0.005	0.465 **	0.294	0.392 **	---
6. Offering PA in class	0.020	0.073	0.177	0.156	0.318 *	---
7. Emotional improvement perception	0.381 **	0.287	0.262	0.356 *	0.506 **	0.440 **	---
8. PA contributes to resilience (b)	0.214	0.057	0.364 *	0.319 *	0.293	0.339 *	0.508 **	---
9. PA level and emotional coping (b)	0.015	0.171	0.278	0.109	0.378 *	0.406 **	0.529 **	0.355 *	---
10. Educational setting (c)	0.113	0.100	0.316 *	0.387 **	0.159	−0.176	0.082	0.161	0.148	---

Note. PA = Physical activity. N = 45 for all correlations except variable 3 (n = 43). (a) 0 = up to 5 years, 1 = 6 years and above. (b) 0 = no/uncertain, 1 = yes. (c) 0 = elementary, 1 = secondary. * p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01.

, mixed activities were the most commonly preferred approach (33.3%, n = 15), followed by movement games (22.2%, n = 10) and individual exercises (17.8%, n = 8). Team sports, dance/rhythmic activities, and outdoor activities represented smaller proportions of teacher preferences.

4.3. Correlational Patterns

As presented in Table 2, the Pearson product–moment correlations revealed significant associations among key variables. Notably, teaching experience was positively correlated with the perception that PA improves emotional functioning (r = 0.381, p = 0.010), supporting the notion that accumulated experience enhances recognition of PA’s neurodevelopmental and emotional impact. Furthermore, emotional improvement perceptions were strongly and positively associated with related beliefs, including the contribution of PA to emotional coping (r = 0.529, p < 0.001), emotional resilience (r = 0.508, p < 0.001), social impact (r = 0.506, p < 0.001), and practical classroom implementation (r = 0.440, p = 0.003).

4.4. Group Differences

Independent-sample t-tests revealed several significant group-level differences, which are summarized in

Table 3. Group differences in physical activity perceptions and practices.

Variable	Group 1	Group 2	t(df)	p	d	95% CI for d
By Educational Setting	Elementary (n = 24)	Secondary (n = 21)
Extracurricular PA encouragement	2.50 (1.14)	3.14 (0.79)	2.13(41) *	0.039	0.65	[0.03, 1.26]
PA improves social relationships	2.71 (0.86)	3.29 (0.46)	2.75(43) **	0.009	0.82	[0.21, 1.43]
By Teaching Experience	≤5 years (n = 22)	6+ years (n = 23)
Emotional improvement perception	2.55 (0.60)	3.04 (0.64)	2.70(43) **	0.010	0.81	[0.19, 1.41]

Note. PA = Physical activity. Values presented as M(SD). CI = confidence interval. Other group comparisons were non-significant (ps > 0.16). * p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01.

and visually illustrated in Figure 1. Teachers in secondary settings reported significantly higher levels of promoting extracurricular PA (M = 3.14, SD = 0.79) than elementary teachers (M = 2.50, SD = 1.14), t(41) = 2.13, p = 0.039, d = 0.65, 95% CI [0.03, 1.26]. They also perceived PA as more effective for improving social relationships (M = 3.29, SD = 0.46) than elementary teachers (M = 2.71, SD = 0.86), t(43) = 2.75, p = 0.009, d = 0.82, 95% CI [0.21, 1.43].

Experienced teachers (≥6 years) reported significantly stronger perceptions of emotional improvement from PA (M = 3.04, SD = 0.64) compared to less experienced teachers (M = 2.55, SD = 0.60), t(43) = 2.70, p = 0.010, d = 0.81, 95% CI [0.19, 1.41].

4.5. Exploratory Observations

Although not directly measured, several teacher comments and item responses suggested perceived improvements in student concentration, behavioral self-regulation, and learning readiness as a result of PA integration. These observations point to a growing awareness of PA’s potential cognitive and executive functioning benefits, reinforcing the relevance of a neuroeducational lens in interpreting these findings.

The Spearman rank–order correlations further supported key findings, with significant associations between teaching experience and emotional improvement perception (rs = 0.382, p = 0.010), encouraging cooperation and perceived social impact (rs = 0.493, p < 0.001), and emotional improvement perception and emotional coping beliefs (rs = 0.542, p < 0.001). These results confirm the robustness of the parametric findings through nonparametric analysis and highlight the consistency of teachers’ beliefs about PA’s emotional and social utility across analytical approaches.

Together, these findings underscore both the practical implementation patterns and the psychological–cognitive awareness levels of teachers working with students with SEND in inclusive environments.

5. Discussion

This study examined special education teachers’ views on the emotional and social roles of physical activity (PA) for students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), their implementation practices, and how experience levels and educational settings influence both. The findings affirm existing research while offering novel insights relevant to professional development and policy.

5.1. Emotional and Social Perceptions of Physical Activity (PA)

Teachers in this study overwhelmingly endorsed the emotional benefits of PA for students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), with over 70% affirming its value in promoting emotional resilience and regulation. These perceptions are strongly supported by recent evidence. Belaire et al. (2024) found that PA interventions significantly improved depressive symptoms, psychological resilience, and emotional self-regulation in children with developmental challenges. Zhang et al. (2022) further demonstrated that increased PA levels correlated with enhanced emotional well-being, mediated by stress-buffering mechanisms in the prefrontal cortex and amygdala.

More specifically, neurobiological research by Anderson and Shivakumar (2013) indicates that regular physical activity (PA) reduces physiological stress and anxiety by modulating activity in the limbic system and prefrontal cortex regions critical for emotional regulation. Building on this foundation, a recent meta-analysis by Song et al. (2025), which reviewed randomized controlled trials involving children with ADHD, confirmed that PA has a dose-responsive effect on emotional well-being. The analysis found that PA significantly reduces symptoms of depression and anxiety while enhancing emotional regulation, with outcomes influenced by the type, intensity, and duration of activity. These neurobiological insights closely reflect the observations reported by teachers in the present study, who described improvements in students’ emotional stability and calmness following PA engagement.

In terms of social outcomes, teachers expressed strong support for group-based PA as a mechanism for fostering peer connection and inclusion. This is supported by meta-analytic research demonstrating moderate to large improvements in social skills among children with autism following PA interventions (Koh, 2024). Moreover, interventions involving team sports, outdoor games, and music-based movement activities have been shown to significantly enhance social interaction and communication in children with ASD (Koh, 2024).

Together, this research confirms that teachers’ intuitive belief that PA provides unique social learning opportunities beyond those available in standard classroom activities is empirically justified and rooted in well-established psychological and developmental frameworks.

5.2. Implementation and Contextual Patterns

One of the more unexpected findings of this study was the differing perceptions of physical activity (PA) implementation and its social outcomes between secondary and elementary special education teachers. While this has not been previously reported in the Israeli or international literature, the data suggest that secondary teachers are considerably more likely to encourage extracurricular PA and perceive stronger peer-related benefits. In Israel, secondary schools tend to possess more structured PA infrastructure, including dedicated gymnasia, professional PE staff, and scheduled weekly PE lessons, which creates a more supportive environment for extracurricular and programmatic PA initiatives. According to the 2022 Israel Report Card for Children and Adolescents, most schools across grade levels offer at least two hours of professionally taught PE weekly, and while only about 50% of schools have sports halls, this remains the standard framework (Hutzler et al., 2023). These institutional advantages may provide secondary educators with greater capability and motivation to implement PA beyond core physical education, resulting in more consistent peer-engaging activities. These infrastructure challenges align with global findings from the Active Healthy Kids Global Alliance (Ng et al., 2023), which identified significant gaps in physical activity surveillance and implementation across 14 countries, particularly highlighting insufficient infrastructure and institutional support as common barriers. These observed differences also align with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), as secondary schools operate within different mesosystem and exosystem conditions (e.g., access to gymnasia, PE specialists, and structured extracurricular programs) compared to elementary schools, which helps explain variations in teachers’ perceptions and practices.

Elementary special education classrooms, in contrast, often rely on informal movement breaks or unstructured activities facilitated within limited physical spaces and without specialist staff. This pattern mirrors international observations of elementary settings, where grassroots efforts rather than automatic institutional support drive PA implementation (Lomsdal et al., 2022). In the Israeli context, although teacher-led PA is valued, it remains optional and irregular, contributing to the observed differences by school level.

In terms of implementation science frameworks such as the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR), these discrepancies highlight critical differences in the inner setting, including infrastructure, leadership support, and resource availability, and the outer setting, such as policy alignment and curriculum design (Damschroder et al., 2009). Secondary settings in Israel appear to be in a more favorable position across these domains, facilitating smoother translation of teacher beliefs into sustainable PA practices. Nonetheless, further research is needed to examine how these structural differences interact with factors such as teacher training, school culture, and student needs to influence PA provision in special education.

The activity type preferences revealed provide important insights into how teachers conceptualize PA integration in special education settings. The predominance of mixed activities (33.3%) suggests that teachers value flexibility and adaptability in their PA approaches, likely reflecting the diverse needs of students with SEND who may require individualized modifications. This finding aligns with recommendations by Bertills and Björk (2024), who emphasized the importance of adaptive PA strategies that can be modified to accommodate different ability levels and learning objectives in inclusive education settings.

The popularity of movement games (22.2%) and individual exercises (17.8%) further supports this pattern, reflecting evidence that these activity types offer greater opportunities for differentiation and personalized support (Shields & Synnot, 2016). Notably, our results show that traditional team sports represented only 11.1% of preferences, which may reflect teachers’ awareness that highly structured competitive activities can present challenges for students with social communication difficulties or motor coordination issues. This finding is consistent with research by Liu et al. (2025), who found that teachers often avoid activities that may exacerbate social anxiety or highlight skill disparities among students with disabilities. As demonstrated in our results, the emphasis on flexible, individualized approaches with mixed activities and movement games comprising over half of all preferences reflects broader trends in inclusive PA programming that prioritize adaptation and student-centered design over traditional competitive formats (Nowland & Haegele, 2023).

Another possible explanation for the low preference for team sports is that these activities often demand high levels of coordination, strict rule adherence, and advanced peer cooperation, which can be difficult to sustain in special education classrooms with diverse needs (Liu et al., 2025; Shields & Synnot, 2016). Teachers may, therefore, gravitate toward more adaptable activities that are easier to manage and can be readily modified to individual abilities. At the same time, the low endorsement of team sports highlights a potential missed opportunity to foster teamwork and social cooperation. Professional development programs could, therefore, focus on equipping teachers with practical strategies for adapting traditional sports, for example, by modifying rules, reducing team sizes, simplifying skill requirements, or incorporating peer-buddy systems, so that the social benefits of collaborative play can be maintained while reducing the barriers to participation for students with SEND (Shields & Synnot, 2016).

5.3. Experience Effects

Teachers with six or more years of experience in this study consistently rated physical activity (PA) as more effective for supporting students’ emotional well-being compared to their less experienced peers. This trend is theoretically grounded in Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory, which posits that self-efficacy developed through mastery experiences, social modeling, and reflective feedback strongly predicts the likelihood of instructional innovation and persistence. More experienced teachers, having accumulated a wider range of teaching encounters, are more likely to recognize the nuanced emotional and behavioral impacts of PA within the special education context. It should be noted, however, that these findings are correlational and cannot establish causality; they highlight an association consistent with Bandura’s framework of accumulated self-efficacy.

Recent empirical studies confirm this connection. For instance, Nowland and Haegele (2023) found that experienced teachers exhibit significantly greater confidence in implementing adaptive PA strategies for students with disabilities, particularly when they have received targeted professional development or mentorship. Similarly, Grimminger-Seidensticker and Seyda (2022) reported that teaching experience was positively associated with the ability to modify PA tasks to support both engagement and emotional regulation, especially in inclusive classrooms. These teachers were more likely to view PA not just as a motor or physical intervention but as a holistic tool to enhance learning readiness and social cohesion.

This growing expertise also reflects a shift from basic compliance with PA guidelines toward more pedagogically intentional use of movement in the classroom. More experienced teachers, as reflected in the quantitative findings of this study, were significantly more likely to rate PA as beneficial for students’ emotional well-being. This pattern aligns with broader research indicating that seasoned teachers are better equipped to integrate PA into their routines in ways that support behavioral goals and emotional regulation (Grimminger-Seidensticker & Seyda, 2022; Nowland & Haegele, 2023). Rather than treating PA as a separate or optional component, these teachers may view it as an embedded strategy for promoting classroom engagement and psychological stability. These findings highlight the need for professional development that emphasizes experiential learning and pedagogical reflection to cultivate emotionally responsive teaching practices across all levels of experience.

5.4. Emerging Neuroeducational Awareness

Although the questionnaire did not explicitly include items targeting cognitive or neurodevelopmental outcomes, the strong emphasis teachers placed on emotional and behavioral benefits of physical activity (PA) may reflect an emerging awareness of its broader neuroeducational potential. This interpretation aligns with growing evidence from neuroscience suggesting that PA can enhance executive functions such as attention, inhibition, and emotional regulation, which are key domains that are often challenged in students with neurodevelopmental disorders.

Research indicates that structured, cognitively engaging PA can stimulate the prefrontal cortex and improve behavioral regulation in school-aged children (Alvarez-Bueno et al., 2017; Best, 2010; de Greeff et al., 2018). These effects are especially relevant in special education contexts, where students often benefit from multimodal strategies that support both learning and self-regulation. While teachers in this study were not formally assessed for neuroscience knowledge, their positive perceptions of PA’s emotional and behavioral utility suggest openness to neuroeducational approaches.

This supports calls by scholars such as Bertills and Björk (2024) to integrate neuroeducational principles into professional development for special educators. Embedding neuroscience-informed content in teacher training could empower educators to align movement-based strategies with students’ cognitive and emotional profiles, fostering more inclusive and effective classroom practices.

5.5. Novel Contributions

This study contributes a unique, context-specific perspective by illustrating how Israeli special education teachers perceive physical activity (PA) as a meaningful tool for emotional and social development, despite operating within a system that often lacks the infrastructure, policy prioritization, and professional training needed to support such practices. These findings build upon Hutzler et al.’s (2023) documentation of structural and cultural barriers to inclusive PA in Israel, including fragmented implementation of adapted physical education and insufficient teacher preparation.

By centering teacher perceptions, the present study offers a grassroots view of how PA is understood and valued in daily practice, even in the absence of strong institutional scaffolding. This bottom-up insight reveals opportunities for culturally responsive professional development that acknowledges the constraints of the Israeli educational system while leveraging teachers’ intuitive and experiential knowledge. In doing so, it paves the way for informed policy interventions that align with both international standards and local realities, potentially serving as a model for other under-resourced or transitional education systems.

5.6. Practical Implications

The findings have important implications for both professional development and educational policy in special education settings. At the professional development level, results suggest the need for differentiated training approaches that account for teachers’ varying levels of experience with physical activity integration. Novice special education teachers would benefit from foundational programs that combine mentorship, co-teaching models, and hands-on workshops focused on integrating movement-based activities into daily classroom routines. These foundational supports should emphasize building confidence in adapting physical activities for diverse student needs while establishing PA as a regular pedagogical tool rather than an optional add-on.

More experienced educators, who already demonstrate stronger recognition of PA’s emotional benefits, may be better positioned for advanced professional development modules. These could explore the neurobiological mechanisms underlying PA’s effects on emotional regulation, executive functioning, and social development, enabling teachers to make more intentional, evidence-informed decisions about when and how to implement specific movement-based interventions. Such tiered approaches acknowledge that teachers’ professional learning needs evolve with experience and expertise. Concrete examples of adapted activities may vary by educational level. In elementary classrooms, cooperative movement games (e.g., ‘Simon Says’ with simplified gestures) and rhythmic dance routines can support emotional regulation and cooperation. In secondary settings, structured peer-led exercise circuits or adapted team games can promote inclusion while accommodating diverse motor and social abilities. Embedding such practices into daily routines may help bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and classroom application.

From a policy perspective, the observed differences between elementary and secondary school contexts reveal important structural inequities that require systematic attention. The finding that secondary teachers report higher levels of extracurricular PA encouragement and stronger perceptions of social benefits likely reflects better access to dedicated facilities, physical education specialists, and institutional support rather than inherent differences in pedagogical beliefs. To address these disparities, educational policy should prioritize infrastructure development and resource allocation for elementary special education settings.

Specific policy recommendations include establishing dedicated time allocations for movement-based activities within the school day, providing specialized training for generalist teachers in adaptive physical education methods, and ensuring access to appropriate physical spaces and equipment. Additionally, embedding PA-related goals and strategies within Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) and school wellness frameworks could help institutionalize these practices and ensure that they become integral to students’ educational experience rather than peripheral activities.

The preference for mixed activities and movement games over traditional team sports also has implications for resource allocation and teacher training. Professional development programs should emphasize flexible, adaptable approaches to PA that can be modified for different ability levels and learning objectives, rather than focusing primarily on structured sports or competitive activities. This aligns with principles of universal design for learning and ensures that PA integration serves the diverse needs of students with special educational needs and disabilities.

Implementation of these recommendations could help ensure that PA becomes a consistent, evidence-based component of special education practice, supporting both immediate student well-being and long-term educational outcomes while promoting more equitable access to movement-based learning opportunities across all educational settings.

5.7. Limitations

This study’s reliance on self-report data limits the depth of understanding about actual classroom practices, and several sampling characteristics constrain generalizability. The sample consisted entirely of female teachers from northern Israel, recruited through a single WhatsApp professional network that included both male and female educators, though only female teachers chose to participate. This gender composition and geographic concentration in northern Israel, combined with the convenience sampling method through one communication network, limit the applicability of findings to other regions, educational contexts, and demographic groups within the special education field, particularly male educators.

Furthermore, the use of convenience sampling introduces potential selection bias, as participation was voluntary and limited to teachers active in one professional communication group. As such, the findings may reflect particular perspectives shaped by this community, and caution is warranted when generalizing to the wider population of special education teachers in Israel.

Furthermore, this perception-based study cannot verify whether positive teacher beliefs about PA translate into sustained, high-quality implementation practices. Direct classroom observations, lesson-log diaries, or systematic documentation of PA frequency and duration would be essential to bridge the gap between reported beliefs and actual instructional behaviors. Without such verification, the relationship between teacher perceptions and consistent classroom practice remains an important area for future investigation.

Additionally, the cross-sectional design precludes causal claims about the relationships between teaching experience, educational setting, and PA perceptions. As a perception-based study, this research did not capture detailed implementation metrics, including the specific nature of PA activities, their frequency, duration, timing throughout the school day or week, or the pedagogical strategies teachers use to integrate movement into their classroom practices. The questionnaire also did not distinguish between different contexts of PA use, such as planned versus spontaneous integration, individual versus group activities, or activities targeting specific learning objectives versus general engagement.

Additionally, this study did not systematically quantify specific infrastructure and training barriers that may impede PA implementation. While teachers indicated challenges related to physical space, equipment access, and professional preparation through informal comments, the questionnaire lacked targeted items to document the percentage of teachers experiencing specific barriers, such as insufficient classroom space or inadequate training in adaptive PA methods. Future research should include quantitative measures of these implementation barriers to provide concrete data supporting policy recommendations for infrastructure investment and professional development funding.

While this approach provides valuable insights into teacher beliefs and attitudes, more precise measurement of implementation patterns, including how teachers actually design, deliver, and adapt PA interventions for diverse student needs, would enhance the understanding of how these beliefs translate into practice. Future research would benefit from mixed-method approaches, broader geographic sampling, inclusion of male teachers, and direct classroom observations to validate self-reported practices and provide a more comprehensive understanding of PA integration in special education settings.

5.8. Future Research

Future mixed-method research (e.g., interviews, classroom observations) would elucidate how beliefs translate into practice and should include diverse sampling across different educational contexts. Longitudinal studies examining how targeted professional development influences teacher perceptions and student outcomes over time are warranted. Further research should also examine specific patterns of PA integration, expand the questionnaire’s coverage of cognitive dimensions, and validate the instrument across diverse educational contexts.

Additionally, future studies should develop and test structured PA intervention protocols with precise implementation guidelines, including detailed activity descriptions, duration specifications, frequency recommendations, and measurable outcome indicators. Such intervention studies would provide evidence-based frameworks for PA integration in special education settings and establish clear benchmarks for evaluating effectiveness across different student populations and educational contexts.

Although teachers in this study hinted at cognitive benefits through informal comments about improved student concentration and behavioral self-regulation, the questionnaire did not include targeted items assessing perceived effects on attention, executive function, or learning readiness. Future versions of the instrument should incorporate specific items measuring teachers’ observations of PA’s impact on cognitive domains such as sustained attention, working memory, and behavioral inhibition. This addition would strengthen the neuroeducational argument and provide a more comprehensive understanding of how teachers perceive PA’s multidimensional benefits for students with SEND.

6. Conclusions

This study provides valuable insights into how special education teachers in Israel perceive and integrate physical activity as a tool for supporting students with special educational needs and disabilities. The findings reveal strong teacher endorsement of PA’s emotional and social benefits, with over 70% of participants recognizing its value for emotional resilience and regulation. Importantly, teaching experience and educational setting emerged as significant moderators, with more experienced teachers demonstrating greater awareness of PA’s emotional benefits and secondary school teachers showing stronger use of extracurricular activities and social programming.

The preference for group-based PA activities reflects teachers’ intuitive understanding of movement as a vehicle for social learning and peer connection, aligning with current research on the neurobiological and psychosocial mechanisms underlying PA interventions. However, the study also highlights significant gaps between teacher beliefs and classroom practice, underscoring the need for structured professional development that bridges theoretical knowledge with practical application.