An Exploratory Cross-Country Study on Italian and Swedish Preschool Teachers’ Role in Supporting Children’s Mathematising During Play

Abstract

This study examines how preschool teachers reflect on their role in challenging children’s mathematical thinking in play. The study was conducted with participants in Italy and Sweden, and data were collected through focus group discussions. We use Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) and the concept of didactic sensitivity to understand how preschool teachers describe their support of mathematical thinking in children’s play and how they interact in play to promote mathematics learning. The findings show that teachers from both focus groups notice, interpret, and improve mathematical content in children’s play. They outline their role in supporting mathematisation during play situations, for instance, by describing mathematical concepts and providing the children with resources. However, the findings show differences and tensions in how teachers perceive their role in children’s play, with Italian teachers highlighting the importance of children’s autonomy and Swedish teachers stressing the importance of being facilitators.

1. Introduction

The present study explores how Italian and Swedish preschool teachers reflect on their role in challenging children’s mathematical thinking in play, with a focus on mathematising, and highlights similarities and differences between the two contexts. Mathematising means using mathematical thinking to solve problems in everyday situations, and mathematics teaching should be based on the learner’s real-world and personal experiences, so that mathematics becomes useful and meaningful for the learner (Freudenthal, 1968, 1981). To support children’s mathematisation, teachers should identify the mathematical opportunities that arise from everyday activities and play (Lee, 2017).

A didactic perspective is used to understand the preschool teachers’ approaches. The concept of didactics (Kansanen, 2009) refers to both what is taught and the purposes behind teaching it. Rather than understanding didactics in a narrow sense, as a prescriptive methodology, we use it more broadly, acknowledging the role of both the teacher and the learner in creating meaningful learning pathways. Supporting children’s mathematising in play situations can therefore be understood from a didactic standpoint, because teaching mathematics in the context of Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) requires recognising both children’s play as the core of ECEC pedagogy and the teacher’s role in shaping opportunities for the learner.

The early childhood curricula in both countries emphasise a holistic approach that combines play, learning, and care, aiming to foster children’s autonomy, curiosity, and exploration through playful activities. Children are regarded as active participants and as holders of rights, whose self-identity and independence are valued (MIUR, 2012; Swedish National Agency for Education, 2025).

This research project is a collaboration between Italian and Swedish researchers. It is a part of the book project Play and Mathematics in Early Childhood Education—Perspectives and Practices across Countries and Cultures, which will be published in the EECERA book series “Towards an Ethical Praxis in Early Childhood: From Research into Practice” in 2026. We have collected and analysed focus group discussions in Italy and Sweden. The results that deal with mathematics content will be published in the book chapter, and this article complements the chapter by focusing on the role of the preschool teacher.

1.1. Previous Research

In this section, we first present how play in preschool is explored in research, especially concerning the role of educators in children’s play. We then present some of the main findings in the field of mathematics and play in preschool.

The value of play in early childhood settings is intertwined with different understandings, and the role of educators in children’s play is not given (Pramling & Wallerstedt, 2019). For instance, play has long been seen as a child’s domain that should be left undisturbed by any kind of adult intervention (Cutter-Mackenzie et al., 2014). More recently, child development has been understood as a dynamic process intertwined with context (van Oers, 2014). Thus, the role of the adult is not considered disruptive but rather supportive. However, to create meaningful interaction, it is important to maintain children’s agency during play (Lagerlöf et al., 2019). Weisberg et al. (2016) characterise guided play as employing pedagogical strategies such as challenging children, preparing the environment for exploration, commenting during play activities in which the children are involved, and extending their interests. Those strategies are all conducive to the scaffolding of learning. In this framework, the educator needs to be attentive to both the autonomy and curiosity of children and the educational goals of the curriculum (Weisberg et al., 2016).

More specifically, supporting mathematics learning through play is about being able to see and understand mathematics in children’s everyday lives (Anantharajan, 2020; Disney & Li, 2022; Papandreou & Tsiouli, 2020), as mathematics teaching in preschool is less formal than in later educational stages (Gasteiger et al., 2020; van Oers, 2010). Teacher involvement in child-initiated play is crucial, as these moments often contain mathematical concepts that can be explored without interrupting the play (e.g., Björklund & Palmér, 2024). Björklund et al. (2018) identify four strategies for supporting children’s mathematisation in play: confirming the direction of interest; providing strategies; situating known concepts; and challenging the meaning of concepts. All these strategies provide opportunities to challenge the children’s learning of mathematical concepts and to extend their experiences (Björklund et al., 2018). However, some preschool teachers are reluctant to support mathematics in play (Trawick-Smith et al., 2016; Wickstrom et al., 2019). Usually, preschool teachers utilise directed play, where the teacher gives instructions and controls the direction of play (Wickstrom et al., 2019).

Teaching mathematics in early childhood also requires specific knowledge and competencies to effectively support young learners (Lee, 2017; Oppermann et al., 2016). Educators should improve their understanding of mathematics to better weave mathematical learning and thinking into daily life in preschool (Johnston & Bull, 2022). There are also studies showing how teachers often incorporate implicit mathematical knowledge into their activities; however, they sometimes struggle to articulate this knowledge explicitly (Gasteiger et al., 2020) and only occasionally develop or challenge children’s mathematical reasoning (Lundqvist et al., 2021). Adult–child play interactions, especially those that involve communicating mathematics through language (e.g., mathematical questions, increasing the visibility of mathematical content by describing the play situation, or engaging in mathematical discussions) have a positive impact (Trawick-Smith et al., 2016). Nevertheless, linking play with teaching seems to be a difficult challenge, with activities often developing into either free play or structured teaching (Björklund & Palmér, 2024; Svensson, 2022; Wickstrom et al., 2019). Preschool teachers find it difficult to recognise children’s informal mathematical learning during play (Svensson, 2022).

This body of research collectively underscores the importance of active teacher participation in facilitating deeper mathematical understanding through play, as play situations provide valuable opportunities to support and challenge children’s mathematising. However, while most of the presented study is based on observations of teachers’ practices and significantly advances knowledge in the field, there remains a need to explore how to support teachers in leveraging the mathematical learning opportunities inherent in children’s play. This exploratory study aims to address this gap.

1.2. Theoretical Framework

The overall didactic perspective employed in this study combines Pedagogical Content Knowledge with the concept of didactic sensitivity.

1.2.1. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)

The integration of PCK into early mathematics emphasises the essential combination of subject knowledge and its teachability. This concept, which originates from Shulman (1986, 1987), highlights the need to combine content knowledge with the ability to convey it effectively, which is also a key element in the teaching of early mathematics (Lee, 2017). PCK is recognised as important for effective teaching of science and mathematics (Ball et al., 2008), given the unique knowledge and competence required to engage preschoolers with mathematics through play and everyday activities (Gasteiger et al., 2020; Lee, 2017; McCray & Chen, 2012; Oppermann et al., 2016). A reconceptualization of PCK in the context of preschool mathematics emphasises the importance of teachers’ competence to notice, interpret, and enhance mathematical thinking in children’s play and everyday activities (Lee, 2017). Noticing refers to the teacher’s ability to identify a range of mathematical situations as they naturally arise in children’s interactions with their environment. This also includes problem-solving behaviours that may not be explicitly mathematical but hold potential for mathematical engagement (Lee, 2017). Interpreting involves analysing these situations through the lens of specific mathematical content relevant to early childhood education. Teachers draw upon their subject matter knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge to make sense of children’s actions in mathematical terms (McCray & Chen, 2012; Lee, 2017). Enhancing is the act of intentionally supporting and extending children’s mathematical thinking. This may include posing questions, introducing representations, or scaffolding problem-solving strategies that align with what has been noticed and interpreted. The goal is to foster deeper understanding and engagement with mathematical ideas (Lee, 2017).

This approach aligns with the need to support preschool teachers in noticing, interpreting, and enhancing children’s mathematical thinking, thereby transforming preschool teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge from tacit to explicit. Developing preschool educators’ awareness provides an opportunity not just to notice, but also to interpret and thus scaffold children’s mathematical thinking (Lee, 2014).

In this study, we used PCK to design questions for the two focus groups and in data analysis. Through the questions asked (see method section), the researchers sought to highlight the teachers’ ability to notice, interpret, and enhance children’s mathematical thinking during play.

1.2.2. Didactic Sensitivity

At the core of didactic sensitivity is the preschool teacher’s responsiveness to children’s autonomy and needs. Professional judgements are based on an openness to learners’ interests and explorations rather than preformed standardised outcomes, because such didactic sensitivity is based on preschool teachers’ ability to make decisions in situ while respecting and trusting individual children (Rønning Sanderud et al., 2022). Thus, a teacher–child partnership based on a view of the child as a subject with agency and aspirations is central to didactic sensitivity. From this perspective, education does not strive to implement curriculum goals by adopting an instrumental approach to play. Rather, it calls for what Rønning Sanderud et al. (2022) define as “sensitive attention”, in which the teacher develops a deep and refined attunement to each child in order to provide and facilitate good conditions for learning and growth (Catucci et al., 2024).

In this study, the concept of didactic sensitivity (Rønning Sanderud et al., 2022) is suitable to understand how preschool teachers, by interpreting spontaneous play situations, can find strategies to mathematise children’s experience (Lee, 2017), while still maintaining children’s agency.

1.3. Research Questions

Based on this introduction, this leads to the following research questions:

• How do the competencies of noticing, interpreting, and enhancing mathematical thinking in children’s play become visible in preschool teachers’ reflections?
• What differences and similarities emerge between Italian and Swedish participants while describing their role in supporting children’s mathematising during play?

2. Methods

In this section, we present the context of the study, data collection, methodological and ethical considerations, and lastly, the data analysis.

2.1. The Context of the Study: Sweden and Italy

The research was conducted as an exploratory cross-country study involving participants from Italy and Sweden. In the following, we briefly present the national contexts and their respective preschool curricula.

2.1.1. Sweden

Swedish preschool (for children aged 1–5) is part of the school system, but it is not compulsory. It is rooted in a social pedagogical approach, based on a holistic perspective that integrates care, learning, and development (Bennett, 2010). Stressing the significance of meaningful and play-based learning, the curriculum aims to foster children’s mathematical abilities and learning of space and time, tailoring activities to their interests and experiences. Preschool teachers have a pedagogical and didactic responsibility to create activities that meet these goals, emphasising the key role of play in education.

The role of the teacher is to take advantage of children’s curiosity and exploration and to create learning opportunities that support and encourage the development of the child’s learning and autonomy. Concerning mathematical content, the Swedish national curriculum states that preschool should provide each child with the conditions for developing (1) the ability to use mathematics to investigate, reflect, and try out different solutions to problems posed by themselves and others; (2) an understanding of space, time, and form and of the basic properties of sets, patterns, quantities, ordering, numbers, measurement, and change, and to reason mathematically about these ideas; and also (3) the ability to discern, expressly investigate, and use mathematical concepts and their interrelationships (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2025). There are no guidelines on how preschool teachers should conduct teaching, which means they are free to plan and organise activities to support children’s mathematical learning.

2.1.2. Italy

In Italy, preschool is part of the integrated 0–6 system, which is not compulsory. It comprises both early childhood education services (3–36 months) and preschool (3–6 years). The Italian National Guidelines (MIUR, 2012) focus on education from preschool to the first cycle of education, specifically up to the equivalent of the eighth grade in the international system. All forms of education share common lines of development between the different school grades.

The guidelines emphasise what competencies the child should have acquired at the end of the first cycle of education. In the Italian National Guidelines, mathematics for preschool-aged children is presented as a field of experience, “Knowledge of the World”, which in turn is divided into two sections, “Objects, Phenomena, Living Things” and “Number and Space”. The guidelines emphasise that preschool should be an educational environment rich in concrete experiences linked to everyday life. It does not aim to anticipate formal learning. Still, it recognises the importance of a playful, practical, and manipulative dimensions in fostering learning as well as in leading children towards the first processes of abstraction. The numeracy-related competence goals for the end of preschool include that the child (1) can gather and sort objects and materials according to different criteria, identify specific properties, compare and evaluate quantities, use symbols to record them, and perform measurements using tools within his/her reach; and (2) is familiar with the strategies for counting and operating with numbers and with those needed to perform the first measurements of length, weight, and other quantities (MIUR, 2012). Recent ministerial documents, including the National Guidelines and New Scenarios (MIUR, 2018) and the Guidelines for STEM Disciplines (MIM, 2023), emphasise the importance of innovative teaching to develop mathematical, scientific, technological, and digital competencies. The latter document also provides methodological and educational guidelines for the integrated education system from birth to the age of six.

2.2. Data and Process

This qualitative study employs focus group discussions (Liamputtong, 2011) to explore how preschool teachers interpret and enhance mathematical opportunities in the context of preschool education in Italy and Sweden. Focus groups were chosen for the data collection, as this method allows the collection of data in a short period of time and gives participants the opportunity to share their views and insights with one another (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Liamputtong, 2011; Wibeck, 2010).

It is important that the participants share similar experiences to ensure rich discussions. As such, Liamputtong (2011) advocates for selecting homogeneous group participants. We employed a combination of purposeful and convenience sampling strategies (Bryman, 2016). This involved selecting participants who had a teaching degree1 and had been working as ECEC teachers for several years, while excluding those who had recently started their teaching careers. We then reached out to potential participants who met these criteria, beginning with ECEC contexts we had previously engaged with in various projects. Six preschool teachers (three from each country) were willing to participate in the focus group discussion, split into two meetings per country. The selected Italian participants worked in different educational settings and held a teaching degree for children aged 3–6 years. In contrast, the Swedish participants worked in the same preschool but in different teams and held a teaching degree for children aged 1–6 years. The focus groups were held in person to promote interaction among participants.

In each meeting, one researcher was physically present while the other participated online due to geographical distance. Each focus group was conducted in participants’ native language. Furthermore, as the present study has a cross-country design, to minimise the risk of misunderstandings due to language or cultural differences as well as potential cultural biases, the authors participated in focus groups in which they were culturally and linguistically fluent (Liamputtong, 2011). The Zoom application was used as a device to enable online participation. All focus group discussions were audio recorded using a mobile application. Each meeting lasted between one hour and fifteen minutes to one and a half hours.

The researchers acted as moderators during the focus groups, facilitating the sharing and development of participants’ views. This approach is common in focus group methodology, where the researcher’s role is to support the discussion among participants (Liamputtong, 2011). However, the level of researcher involvement can vary depending on the type of research being conducted. In this study, the research group initiated the project, and the data collection was conducted within a compressed timeline. For this reason, the researchers group adopted a more structured approach (Morgan, 2019) and, prior to the focus groups, prepared some questions aimed at helping the teachers develop their reflections during the meeting and engage with the topic. The questions were the same in Italy and Sweden; however, some subjects were given different amounts of emphasis based on the flow of the participants’ discussions.

The preschool teachers were tasked with identifying and interpreting mathematical content in play scenarios and suggesting strategies to enhance children’s mathematising. In the first focus group, the preschool teachers reflected on a video available on the website of the Swedish National Agency for Education, called “Flygplan” (Airplane)2, as it offered a real-practice scenario of child-initiated play. The video shows children engaging in free play, where imagination, dialogue, and collaboration emerge. Emma and Milla start off with some pretend play in a tent, while Sture and Emil focus on building an airplane out of plastic blocks. Through their spontaneous interactions and shared problem-solving, the children engage in mathematical thinking and develop their play narrative together. We chose this video because it clearly demonstrates how various mathematical challenges can naturally emerge during children’s play. The research team agreed that this was an effective way to initiate the focus group discussions, as using stimulated material (Barbour, 2007) could encourage participants to share their views. By presenting a situation for reflection, the first focus group discussion aimed to deepen the understanding of how teachers recognise mathematical content in children’s play, with a focus on interpreting children’s reasoning and potential teaching interventions.

The Italian teachers were provided with translations to understand the dialogue in the video. Thus, the discussion during the first focus group was based on the video and the reflections that the teachers shared after watching it. Below are examples of questions asked during the first focus group, with a focus on noticing, interpreting, and enhancing:

• What kind of mathematics can you see in this play?
• What mathematical aspects do you notice/see?
• How would you support children in a similar situation?

At the end of the first focus group, the participants were invited to choose moments in the children’s play from their own school experience. The invitation was for the participants to observe spontaneous play, building on the reflections that had emerged during the first meeting. The teachers were asked to select significant moments, make some observations, and share something they had observed in their context that focused on mathematical thinking in play situations. We also asked the preschool teachers to reflect on their role in those play situations.

In the second meeting, the preschool teachers shared their observations. Some brought pictures of children engaged in unstructured or teacher-led play activities, while others chose to recount their observations verbally. In this way, the second focus group discussions allowed for exploration of how the participating preschool teachers perceived their role in enhancing mathematical content in play situations. Examples of questions asked during the second focus group include the following:

• Why did you choose to share this particular example?
• Concerning this example, how did you approach it to foster mathematical thinking?

During the second focus group, six examples were discussed, one for each teacher. These included educator-led activities (such as children drawing), playful activities initiated by educators (like looking for geometric shapes), and child-initiated play (including playing with water, in the sandbox, with construction, and playing with a dollhouse). These activities were observed by the teachers both indoors and outdoors. As our research aimed to explore how the preschool teachers reflected on their role in challenging children’s mathematical thinking in play, focusing on mathematising, we selected situations where children initiated the play themselves.

2.3. Ethical Considerations

The study follows the European regulations on personal data (EU, 2016/679) as well as the guidelines of the Swedish Research Council (2024) and the Italian Research Council (2019). All participants received information about the goals of the study and gave their written consent. Furthermore, they were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time. Confidentiality was guaranteed by using pseudonyms for each teacher in the transcriptions and the presentation of results.

2.4. Data Analysis

Each audio-recorded focus group was transcribed in the original language. The transcripts were then translated into English to ensure transparency and enable comprehensive joint analysis. Data analysis of the empirical material was conducted by focusing on preschool teachers’ roles and strategies to enhance mathematical thinking in children’s play. The analysis of the focus group discussion was conducted in three steps. In the first step, transcribed dialogues were read individually, and each researcher noted contents of interest, focusing on the competencies as well as on the teachers’ professional judgements expressed in the dialogues. In the second step, the noted contents of interest were discussed collaboratively within the research group in order to identify common patterns. In the third step, we combined the key concepts of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) with the concept of didactic sensitivity to create an understanding of how the competencies and the didactic considerations that the teachers expressed during the focus group discussions related to their view about the teacher–child partnership in play situations, adopting an abductive approach (Bryman, 2016). The results section exemplifies the last step.

3. Results

The participants’ perspectives and voices are quoted in the results, offering direct insight into how the findings are supported by empirical data. We use pseudonyms for the six preschool teachers: Marta, Lucia, and Camilla from Italy, and Anna, Sofia, and Lisa from Sweden.

The results are presented in two main sections. The first section focuses on the first focus group and highlights the teachers’ competencies. The second section centres on the second focus group and emphasises the teachers’ reflections on their role in supporting children’s mathematising, grounded in their examples. However, there is some overlap between the two sections, as the teachers also express their views on how to support children based on the video used in the first focus group.

3.1. Competence in Noticing, Interpreting, and Enhancing

The Italian and Swedish preschool teachers notice children’s mathematical thinking in the “Airplane” video and interpret the mathematical challenges the children are faced with. Those challenges are related to the construction as well as counting and estimating quantities:

There’s a lot of math’s when you just sit there and watch it (the video). Then you see a lot, this part with an amount of chocolate, and you can share. And time (Saturday)… this part with the planning, I think it should be wall and floor. The position and shape of the plane.

(Anna, Sweden)

The participants from both countries emphasise the importance of cooperation and negotiation in the play situation as important elements of mathematical reasoning. They notice and interpret how the play situation partly involves the children in trying out different solutions when problems arise, while on the other hand, they listen to each other and reason about mathematical concepts:

[…] use logic to find out what the solution was; trial and error in the sense that he tried but then realized there were two… two gaps he couldn’t fill.

(Marta, Italy)

Furthermore, the preschool teachers reflect on how mathematical content can be enhanced when they are asked to imagine what role they would play if the situation presented occurred in their setting. The teachers describe feasible strategies to enhance such play situations, for example, by asking questions to challenge the children and promote a deeper understanding:

There I would have probably stepped in as a teacher, I think. Yes, and listened. How does it turn out then? Can we try it? And how should we… how many blocks do we need to get all the way around […] Perhaps I should have asked more. What should it look like, and how big should we make it, and how should we get the pieces to fit? What do you think? That you listen to everyone, or in any case, more.

(Sofia, Sweden)

-And tried everyone’s theories.

(Anna, Sweden)

The quotations above illustrate the connection between noticing and interpreting, as these are prerequisites for enhancing children’s mathematical thinking. The teachers interpret that spatial relations, recognising shapes, and measurement are involved in the play activity. By asking different questions, the teachers can enhance children’s mathematising (Sofia). Furthermore, the second quotation indicates how the teacher (Anna) could capitalise on children’s diverse understandings and create a space for exploring different solutions.

Similarly, the Italian teachers also notice and interpret the mathematical challenges children face. However, they place a stronger emphasis on children’s agency. They stress the importance of encouraging children to find their solutions, rather than presenting solutions to them:

The challenge would have come to me spontaneously, the challenge of how to complete the plane, not giving solutions but encouraging them to find them […] We would follow up from the answer to that.

(Marta, Italy)

They also emphasise the importance of observing both the children’s actions and their dialogue, to elicit children’s mathematical reasoning during play situations:

[…] because dialogue is what guides us; that is, listening to what they are doing. How often do children do something, and we make the mistake of saying: “You are doing this [with emphasis]”. And in their mind, in their project, in their action, there is something completely different.

(Marta, Italy)

Moreover, the preschool teachers from Italy discuss the downsides of intervening in children’s play:

In short, it’s, how do you put it, an attempt to direct things the way we want, according to our interpretation, which is obviously different from the children’s interpretation. It’s something that, in my opinion, and I admit I do it myself sometimes, even though I try not to, that holds them back a bit, that perhaps even hinders the children’s development of relational and emotional autonomy.

(Lucia, Italy)

These last quotations from Marta and Lucia also highlight the teachers’ awareness of the need to carefully balance interpreting the mathematical challenges inherent in a play activity while respecting children’s intentions.

Overall, the preschool teachers in both focus groups agreed on the importance of children’s mathematising through play and emphasised that their role involves being sensitive to the children’s interests. However, they reflect on their role in enhancing children’s mathematising in slightly different ways. This topic will be explored in greater depth in the next section.

3.2. The Role of Preschool Teachers in Children’s Play

We present one example of free play from each focus group, choosing one that was discussed in depth by the participants.

3.2.1. Example 1 (Italy): Children’s Play in a Puddle

Camilla presents an example where some children are playing in a puddle. The teacher has provided them with some materials: bowls, measuring cylinders, pots, spoons, and buckets, and observes the children’s play as it unfolds. As already shown in the first focus group, the participants demonstrate their competence to notice and interpret the mathematical content that emerges during the children’s exploration, this time with a puddle. They also notice and interpret the challenges the children seem to face, such as understanding the concept of volume when pouring water into different containers:

When they see the water, they pour it from one container to another… pour… and the most common concept/discussion among them is: “It’s heavier”; “It’s lighter”; “There’s more here”; “There’s less here”. […] “The water from the cylinder seems like more” […] because it’s taller, so to them it seems like more compared to a wider pan; thus, it seems like less water to them.

(Camilla)

When prompted by one of the researchers to reflect on her role as a teacher in relation to the play situation, Camilla emphasised that at that moment, she was an attentive observer and did not intervene in the play, either verbally or through other actions:

So, the only thing I felt like doing was to provide them with materials, but I did nothing else. I just observed. I gave them various materials […].

(Camilla)

During the reflections on the role of the teacher in this child-led play situation, Camilla turns to the other participants and discovers a significant problematization related to her role:

I asked myself if my intervention had gone well; in the sense of… because of the way I am—but perhaps also because of my way of teaching; let’s say, I intervene as little as possible […]. Maybe I channelled them into a certain path […] maybe I, how can I put it, restricted their divergent thinking, which could have gone in other directions?! […] When you have these tools, you’re almost forced to go in a certain direction […].

(Camilla)

Meanwhile, Marta also stresses the importance of being aware as a teacher of the kinds of opportunities and experiences that are available to the children:

I think that we also have a sort of […] duty… in the sense that we have certain objectives in mind, anyway… so in this case, it could have been: my objective is to let them experience the puddle, whatever happens happens, or my objective is to let them have an experience that can fall within the scope of making measurements, testing weights… so if there is also a design in my mind to experiment and guide—while still allowing them the freedom to experience it.

(Marta)

In this example, a play situation in an outdoor environment illustrates how children explore mathematics while playing. They compare and explore concepts of measurement, such as volume, weight, and length. The role of the preschool teacher is mainly described as that of an observer. Offering the children different materials is problematic to some extent, and some ambivalence emerges about whether or not the preschool teacher should intervene. Finally, they reflect on whether it is appropriate or even correct to intervene in the children’s play and, if they do intervene, in what ways it might be a more or less appropriate response to the children’s needs.

3.2.2. Example 2 (Sweden): Children’s Play in the Sandbox

In the Swedish focus group, Anna presents an example where three four-year-olds “bake cakes” in a sandbox. In this situation, the preschool teacher observed what they did and spoke. The children’s play touches on mathematical concepts related to measurement, such as volume, quantity, and weight:

They kept on measuring: “Oh, I’m pouring so many centilitres into my cake”. They measured and measured, and then there was another one who had a half-decilitre measuring cup and a decilitre measuring cup. “Here I have the big measuring cup, and here is the medium measuring cup”. They went on and on, and they were baking and making stuff and pouring it back and forth, and yes, it was very exciting to see what they were thinking when they were filling the bucket.

(Anna)

Anna describes what she would do if she had interacted with the children’s play and says she would challenge them by asking questions to encourage further exploration and deeper understanding:

I’d like to know what they were thinking; maybe that’s what I would get to challenge. How many measurements do you take to fill this bucket, etc., but they kept on measuring and things like that the whole time. It was great fun to see when you started opening those mathematical eyes.

(Anna)

Furthermore, Anna also offers materials and tools to challenge children’s mathematical thinking in their play:

For one thing, I probably would have liked to have had a few more measuring cups and spoons with me to be able to show the differences between units (decilitres, half-decilitres, centilitres, and millilitres. Go through all the measurements and see the differences between them. And for weight, we would have a scale. They use both natural materials and sand, and… all kinds of different materials, and see what the difference is… that they actually weigh different amounts. And then maybe weigh that cake too. What happens if I put the cake there and a cone in the other bowl? Which weighs the most? Weigh, weight it’s called.

(Anna)

Another preschool teacher, Lisa, expresses the value of using mathematical language in play:

And having real tools, and attaching the concepts to them, it’s an idea I have. You can tell that they (the children) find it somewhat valuable to use these decilitre measuring cups […] it engages and motivates them.

(Lisa)

In this example, a play situation in an outdoor environment shows how the children explore mathematical concepts of measurement (volume, weight, and length). The role of the preschool teacher is mainly described as that of a facilitator. After observing the situation, the teacher would participate in the play, ask questions, and provide materials to support and challenge the children’s mathematical thinking.

Both examples illustrate play-based situations in an outdoor environment where children explore mathematical measurement concepts such as volume, weight, and length. However, differences emerge in how educators support and enhance children’s mathematical thinking through the provision of materials and participation in play. Italian preschool teachers discussed whether to intervene in the play, while Swedish preschool teachers seemed to take their involvement in children’s play for granted, without expressing such considerations. These results are discussed more in depth in the next section, through the lens of didactic sensitivity.

4. Discussion

We adopted a didactic lens to understand preschool teachers’ perspectives on their role in children’s play in relation to mathematics. The research was conducted as a cross-country study, as we aimed to shed light on the similarities and differences between the practices using data from the focus group discussions. We were guided by two research questions informed by the concept of didactic sensitivity and using PCK as a framework.

The first research question concerns how competence becomes visible in the teachers’ reflections. The results from the first meeting demonstrate the participants’ competence to notice and interpret mathematics in children’s play and to propose different strategies to enhance it, aligning with Gasteiger et al.’s (2020) perspective on the pivotal role of play in early mathematical development. As Oppermann et al. (2016) argue, the ability to identify mathematics in children’s play is crucial, and our results show, in contrast to Svensson (2022), that the teachers in both groups were aware of mathematical content in children’s play and of informal mathematical learning taking place during play. The results also show how the participants emphasised that children’s problem-solving strategies and cooperation are inherent in mathematical reasoning. Reflecting hypothetically on how they would have acted in this situation in their role as preschool teachers, it appears that the groups shared similar ideas about supporting children’s mathematising, as both suggested the use of challenging questions as a viable strategy, in line with Björklund et al.’s (2018) results. However, the first focus group results also show varying degrees of emphasis on the delicate balance of interpreting children’s intentions in play situations.

The second question explores the differences and similarities that emerge in the focus group discussions as teachers describe their role in supporting children’s mathematisation in play, based on scenarios from their own practice. The results from the second meeting reveal a difference between the participants from the Italian and the Swedish group in their approach to children’s play. The teachers in both demonstrated again their competence to notice and interpret instances of mathematical thinking. Both examples, “Playing with a puddle” and “Playing in the sandbox”, drew attention to concepts related to measurement (weight and volume), demonstrating how outdoor play provides opportunities for children’s mathematical learning (Catucci et al., 2024). Supporting children’s exploration of mathematical concepts by providing materials and tools is a strategy that was described by the participants in both groups. This can be seen as an important strategy, as previous research has shown (Papandreou & Tsiouli, 2020; Weisberg et al., 2016).

Similarly to Björklund et al. (2018) and Trawick-Smith et al. (2016), the Swedish teachers in this study emphasised engaging in meaningful dialogue in order to explore emerging mathematical concepts. The Italian teachers in this study, on the other hand, expressed greater ambivalence about whether and how to intervene in children’s play. This hesitation could be interpreted as a reflexive approach, as they consider the complexity of their tasks as educators and the importance of being open to the unfolding of play situations rather than aiming for predefined outcomes. This is in line with the concept of didactic sensitivity (Rønning Sanderud et al., 2022). For instance, in developing their discussion of the role of the adult in play situations, they stress the importance of having a respectful attitude toward children’s play, because directing it too much can have a negative impact and risks interrupting or channelling the spontaneous flow of the children’s choices or actions. The Italian teachers highlighted the importance of supporting children’s autonomy, interests, and learning by being sensitive to their intentions in play situations and viewed children’s play as free play where adult intervention should be minimal. These results resonate with those of Wickstrom et al. (2019), as the Italian participants conceived of free play as free from adult interaction, while directed play was understood to be detrimental to children’s autonomy (e.g., Cutter-Mackenzie et al., 2014). The Swedish participants showed no ambivalence about their role as facilitators, discussing how they could enhance children’s exploration by asking challenging questions and providing materials. The differences that the results show between the two groups have clear didactic implications, as they indicate a challenge in integrating play and teaching (e.g., supporting and expanding children’s learning). Regarding the role of preschool teachers in fostering children’s mathematical thinking, the Swedish and Italian curricula both encourage professional judgement based on flexibility and adaptation to the local context. However, the results of the present study need to be contextualised, as the integration of teaching and play has been widely discussed after the implementation of the national curriculum in Sweden (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2025).

Previous research highlights the adult involvement in free play as a pivotal strategy to support children’s mathematics learning in everyday situations (e.g., Anantharajan, 2020; Disney & Li, 2022). On the contrary, free play without adult involvement is not a conducive strategy for learning in relation to learning objectives (e.g., Weisberg et al., 2016; Wickstrom et al., 2019). Thus, taking children’s learning through free play and exploration for granted means adopting a less active role as a teacher while sustaining the dichotomy between play and teaching in ECEC. Using the concept of didactic sensitivity, we argue that to facilitate children’s learning, it is crucial to integrate an openness to children’s initiatives with didactic choices that are attuned to the unfolding of play. Rather than being primarily an observer, the teacher needs to co-create a partnership with the children, integrating their interests and initiatives in co-constructed learning pathways. The spontaneity of children’s play should be preserved, as the teachers refrain from adopting more formal approaches (e.g., Lagerlöf et al., 2019). Participating in children’s play on their terms is a fruitful way to integrate mathematics into play, as these moments often contain mathematical concepts to be explored (Björklund & Palmér, 2024). This means making children’s mathematical thinking visible through scaffolding (Lee, 2014) and enhancing mathematical thinking in play situations rather than using a structured adult-led approach.

The results of the present study implicate the importance of offering the possibility for professional exchange, as the participants from Italy expressed that they had limited opportunities to discuss pedagogical and didactic matters in depth with other colleagues regularly. As Lee (2017) points out, preschool teachers need support in order to develop their competence to notice, interpret, and enhance mathematical thinking in children’s play and daily routines. This could be achieved through professional development and regular collegial discussions, offering opportunities for reflection. In partnership with the researchers, professional development interventions could be designed using participants in real-practice preschool situations to support children’s mathematical thinking.

The present study contributes to a deeper understanding of teachers’ perceptions of their role in children’s play, with a focus on mathematics, in two different European countries. As such, the study is a contribution to the field of didactics in ECEC, as it explores how to support young children’s educators in expanding mathematical learning opportunities in play-based contexts. It also has implications for teachers, as it can offer useful insights into their practices. Furthermore, the results could be valuable when implementing the learning objectives as expressed in the curricula while still retaining children’s play as a starting point.

4.1. Limitations

Although this is a small exploratory study, the results can still contribute important information about teachers’ reflections on their role in supporting children’s mathematisation through play. A limitation is that data were only collected in two focus group discussions in each country. More group discussions might have produced a different result. The researchers’ prior knowledge of mathematics in preschool may have influenced the results. Teachers voluntarily chose to participate in the study. Consequently, participants may have been more likely to have positive attitudes in teaching mathematics in a preschool context.

4.2. Further Research

The present exploratory study shows that it can be meaningful for preschool teachers to reflect on how to interact with children’s play with a focus on mathematising.

As our data are based on focus group discussions, it would be important to gather data from observations in the natural environment of preschool teachers. This type of dataset could generate meaningful prompts for discussion, for instance, using a stimulated recall technique.