Teaching and Learning of Time in Early Mathematics Education: A Systematic Literature Review

Abstract

This systematic literature review investigates how the concept of time is taught and learned in early mathematics education. While young children are commonly expected to learn how to tell time, this review explores what additional aspects should be emphasised to foster a deeper and more sustainable understanding of time. Using the EBSCO database, 36 relevant articles published up to December 2024 were identified. To cover different aspects related to the teaching and learning of time, peer-reviewed scientific articles as well as practice-based reports were included in the search. A majority of the articles focused on clock reading as an aspect of time. The aspects duration, sequencing, and measurement of time also frequently appeared whereas expressions of time, or cross-disciplinary aspects were seldom mentioned. Drawing on the findings, this review proposes a comprehensive framework outlining key aspects that should be included in early mathematics education to support the teaching and learning of time.

1. Introduction

Child: Dad, can I play a bit longer?

Parent: No, hurry on, we need to leave in a moment.

Child: What time is it?

Parent: Seven o’clock

Child: When is my birthday?

Parent: You just had a birthday, so now it’s your mom, dad, and big brother’s birthday, then it’s your turn again!

The questions above are typical of those children ask their parents from an early age, questions that touch on various aspects of time. For instance, ‘Can I play a bit longer?’, is related to a period of time, whereas ‘What time is it?’ relates to a specific point in time. Similarly, ‘When is my birthday?’, also concerns a specific point of time, but one tied to the calendar rather than the clock. In their responses, parents may include time-related expressions such as ‘now’, ‘just’, ‘a whole year’, and ‘seven o’clock’, each reflecting different temporal concepts. These range from vague estimations (just) to precise times (seven o’clock), and include sequencing terms like ‘then’, indicating a sequential order. Conversations like these take place even before formal schooling begins and children develop an awareness of time by experiencing time, events, and time-related language on a daily basis (Björklund, 2007; van Bommel et al., 2023).

Understanding time involves familiarity with various objects such as clocks, calendars, and schedules. It is not an isolated cognitive process but rather one that draws on several skills, including numerical understanding, language proficiency, memory, and spatial reasoning. Walsh’s (2003) theory of magnitude proposes that time, space, and numbers are integrated within a shared cognitive framework, suggesting that understanding time is closely linked to mathematical domains like arithmetic and geometry. Reflecting this, mathematics curricula position time in different ways. Most curricula connect time to measurement, which can entail a focus on telling time and clock reading (e.g., ACARA, 2022; DoE, 2021) but some extend this to include elapsed time and sequencing of events (e.g., SLO, 2006). In some curricula, the language of time is exemplified (e.g., quicker, slower, DoE, 2021; SLO, 2006). Measurement maybe linked to geometry (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2022) or quantities (FMoESR, 2024) but can also be treated as a stand-alone topic (SLO, 2006). It may also be integrated or connected to other subjects such as history (FMoESR, 2024; SLO, 2006) or science (e.g., Japan, in TIMSS 2015 Encyclopedia, Mullis et al., 2015), allowing for a broader interpretation of what education on time might entail. Regardless of its curricular placement, being able to measure time in a functional way requires knowledge of properties, units and scale; properties refer to identifying which aspect of time is being measured; units involve selecting appropriate measures; and scale refers to recognising how units can be combined and that smaller units exist within larger units (Wright et al., 2007).

Surprisingly, few studies have focused on time in early mathematics education (Smith & Barrett, 2017; Earnest, 2017; Burny et al., 2009; Russell & Kamii, 2012) An initial literature search identified two frameworks addressing time in this context. One framework, based on a literature review, provided a good overview but was limited to the cognitive processes involved in clock reading (Burny et al., 2009). Although it mentioned the historical and geological aspects of time, the framework focused solely on mechanical time and the skills related to clock reading. This framework linked clock reading to four cognitive domains: mathematics (e.g., number sense, operations), language (e.g., vocabulary), memory (e.g., visual imagery), and conventions (e.g., arbitrary rules).

The second framework was published some years later, in 2016. It identified three aspects of time (i.e., measurement, succession, and duration), each associated with six key ideas, all connected to the overarching concept of awareness of time (Thomas et al., 2016). Although the authors claimed the framework was research-based, the article did not clarify which studies were included or excluded in its development. Moreover, the framework focused primarily on calendars and clocks, despite the fact that time encompasses much more than these representations.

Already in 1929, Piaget emphasised the importance of concepts such as succession and duration in children’s understanding of time in early mathematics education (Piaget, 1929/1969). While some aspects of his findings have been criticised after replication, especially the age at which children develop understanding of the different aspects (e.g., Fivush & Mandler, 1985; Russell & Kamii, 2012), his description of what an awareness of time encompasses has not been argued against. Since Piaget’s writings in 1929, the introduction of digital clocks has added a new dimension to time-telling, requiring children to navigate both analogue and digital formats. Globalisation gave rise to including time zones as they became more tangible in the everyday life of modern young children. Despite these developments, a comprehensive framework for the teaching and learning of time has yet to be established. This article addresses that gap by proposing such a framework, based on a systematic literature review, to answer the question: What should early mathematics education on time include?

2. Materials and Methods

In order to construct a research-based framework for what early mathematics education about the teaching and learning of time should include, a systematic literature review (see Hart, 2018) focusing on the time-related content of articles was conducted.

Moher et al. (2009) proposed a model to report a systematic review transparently, objectively, and with explicit details: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). Using the four phases defined through PRISMA, identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion, the information flow was structured.

2.1. Identification

The Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) was chosen as the most relevant database to identify publications in mathematics education.1 At this stage of identification, we wanted to cover a wide range of publications. Therefore, the search was not limited to peer-reviewed articles, but also other peer-reviewed publications were included, so-called grey literature which in this case consisted of teacher reports on lesson activities. Only articles in English were included for this study.

Three searches were conducted in 2024 and another one prior to finishing a first draft of the article (March 2025) to include any possible new articles (however, no articles after 2023 were found). Different search-strings were tested, and minimal differences occurred by using slightly different search vocabularies such as TIME instead of CLOCK. The search words TEACHING and LEARNING were used to capture research connected to lessons on time. As the topic of time occurred in curricula within the topic of arithmetic, ARITHMETIC was used as a search term. GEOMETRY as a search term resulted in many records not involving the teaching and learning of time, but rather with a focus on the clock as an artefact to explore geometrical topics such as angles. Geometry was thus omitted as a search term. To not limit the search solely to arithmetic, the search term MATHEMATICS was also used. Finally, the age group was addressed by using the search terms EARLY YEARS, EARLY CHILDHOOD, and YOUNG CHILDREN. Our search was limited to articles connected to mathematics education as we wanted to describe the teaching and learning of time in early mathematics education.

As very few hits were obtained, a cumulative search was used rather than searching for one unique matching search string. The use of different search strings resulted in a total of 62 unique records after removing duplicates. (

Table 1. Search strings, number of records, and accumulated number of records dd 250329.

Search String	Number of Records	Accumulated Number of Records
arithmetic AND time AND teaching AND clock	16	16
arithmetic AND time AND learning AND clock	16	22
arithmetic AND (teaching OR learning) AND clock	32	32
(“early years” OR “early childhood” OR “young children”) AND arithmetic AND time AND clock	1	33
arithmetic AND time AND clock	29	39
(teaching OR learning) AND time AND clock AND mathematics	67	57
(“early years” OR “early childhood” OR “young children”) AND mathematics AND clock	11	62

).

2.2. Screening

Two inclusion criteria were used for screening (Figure 1):

(1)

Focus on education/early years mathematics;

(2)

Peer-reviewed articles.

The screening process involved reading the title and abstract, and only obvious mismatches were removed. From the 62 records, 17 were removed as they were on subjects other than education/early years mathematics (screening criterium 1). For example, an article on the angles of the hands of the clock for grade 8 and 9, one on special relativity using a light clock, and an article on daily math activities (math around the clock).

Another 12 records were removed using inclusion criteria 2 (peer-reviewed) by screening the publisher/journal. These non-peer-reviewed records were mostly teaching materials such as worksheets and lacked any teacher guidance. This left us a total of 33 records.

2.3. Eligibility and Inclusion

All 33 remaining records were read for eligibility, and another three were removed as their focus was considered not to be on time and thus not relevant. In one, the focus was on concrete and virtual manipulatives, and a clock was only mentioned as one of many manipulatives. In the other two, problem solving was in focus and a clock was merely used in the activities as a manipulative to calculate angles or to construe functions of the interrelated position of the hands of the clock. No more inclusion criteria were added as 30 articles were considered a reasonable amount. The articles dated from 1979 to 2023.

After reading the 30 articles, another 6 were added obtained by adding frequently used references in the articles already identified (snowball effect). The fact that only few articles could be added using the snowball effect indicated that the search string had captured seminal works and relevant articles. It also showed that few articles actually existed.

Table 2. Articles ordered by date.

Decade	Frequency	Article Nr (Supplementary Section)
>1980	1	1
1980–1989	7	2–8
1990–1999	5	9–13
2000–2009	2	14, 15
2010–2019	14	15–29
2020–2024	7	30–36

below shows from what decade the different articles are. As few articles were found, no lower limit was set. We can see that time has been explored and researched over a long period, but with few articles before 2010 (15) which then was almost doubled between 2010 and 2019. A similar rate of article publication can be assumed for 2020–2030, with already 7 articles until 2023 (no articles were found after 2023).

2.4. Analysis

Aiming to obtain an overview of what aspects of time are important for the teaching and learning of time, a quantitative analysis was conducted, in which specific aspects related to the teaching and learning of time were listed. At this stage, aspects mentioned in the articles were denoted and their appearance in the articles was counted. A priori aspects were complemented with posteriori aspects, emerging from a first read of the articles.

The a priori and posteriori aspects were grouped into artefacts, core aspects, and peripheral aspects.

A second qualitative analysis was conducted in which the eight aspects (core and peripheral) found in the quantitative analysis were related and connected to each other in order to be able to construct a framework capturing their aspects and interrelatedness. By doing so, a holistic picture of the teaching and learning of time can be provided through the framework. In the next chapter, reporting this analysis, no quantitative references to the data (the articles) will be given as the interrelatedness of the aspects (core and peripheral) is not stated explicitly in the articles themselves. The interrelatedness was searched for by mapping the aspects from the quantitative analysis and looking for logical connections between these. These were seldom explicitly stated in the data.

3. Results

This results section is divided into two parts. First, an overview of the appearance of artefacts, core, and peripheral aspects in the articles is given (Section 3.1). Second, specifics for the artefacts and the core and peripheral aspects are described more thoroughly in Section 3.2, Section 3.3 and Section 3.4. Third, the framework derived by analysing the interrelations between the artefacts, core, and peripheral aspects are described in Section 3.5. To enhance readability in this section, references to the articles are given by number according to the list provided in the Supplementary Section.

3.1. Quantitative Results

Eight aspects of time were identified in the articles. Five of these, named core aspects (

Table 3. Appearance of artefacts, core, and peripheral aspects for teaching and learning of time in articles included in the review, frequency and article nr given.

	Aspect		Frequency	Article Nr (Supplementary Section)
Artefacts	Clock	Analogue	22	1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 16, 19, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35
		Digital	12	1, 4, 5, 8, 12, 16, 19, 21, 29, 31, 33, 35
		Analogue vs. Digital	7	1, 4, 8, 12, 23, 33, 35
		Linked/independent hands	3	23, 24, 33
		One handed clock	3	2, 4, 5
		Aspects of clock	7	6, 9, 13, 24, 25, 30, 33
	Sundial		2	5, 10
	Calendar		5	3, 11, 15, 22, 36
	Timetables		1	15
	Time zones		2	10, 11
Core aspects	Telling time	Reading clockface	26	1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36
	Duration	Time interval	12	3, 5, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 36
		Time span	5	14, 19, 21, 22, 36
		Events	7	3, 6, 8, 14, 17, 22, 36
		Measurement	8	3, 12, 13, 17, 19, 22, 26, 36
	Sequencing	Order events	8	3, 6, 7, 15, 22, 26, 27, 36
		Order clockfaces	1	12
		(un)familiar events	1	7
	Remoteness		1	27
Peripheral aspects	Language	Words and expressions	10	15, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 28, 32, 36
		Time literacy	6	7, 11, 12, 32, 33, 35
	Associated contexts	Other school subjects	2	3, 10, 15
		Culture	2	10, 11
	Embodiment	Constructing clocks	6	5, 6, 9, 26, 30, 31
		Experiencing time	7	6, 14, 20, 22, 34, 35, 36

), connect directly to the teaching and learning of time: telling time, clock, duration, sequencing, and remoteness. The remaining three aspects, named peripheral aspects (Table 3), are important to relate to in the teaching of time, but are not considered a specific knowledge domain. The peripheral aspects focus on how humans internalise, embody, or communicate time, emphasising personal, cultural, and linguistic engagement.

3.2. Artefacts

The clock, calendar, sundial, timetables, and time zones are all mentioned as artefacts displaying time in some way.

A focus on the analogue clock appears throughout all years, from the first article in 1979 to articles in 2023 (#1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 16, 19, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, Table 3). Twelve articles focus on digital clocks (#1, 4, 5, 8, 12, 16, 19, 21, 29, 31, 33, 35, Table 3) resulting in seven articles in which these two artefacts’ representations of time are compared, contrasted, and combined (#1, 4, 8, 12, 23, 33, 35, Table 3).

For the analogue clock, a focus on the hour hand before introducing the minute hand is emphasised. This is specifically suggested in three articles by using a one-handed clock (Figure 2), all of which were published before 1990 (#2, 4, 5, Table 3). Also, three articles address the difference between working with clocks with linked hands and clocks with independent hands (#23, 24, 33, Table 3); these were published after 2000.

Some articles focus on specific aspects of a clock, such as the ticks. These articles point out that ticks indicate different numbers, depending on whether it is the hour or minute hand pointing to it. This focus on aspects of a clock is pointed out by seven articles (#6, 9, 13, 24, 25, 30, 33, Table 3). In six articles, constructing clocks are focused on as a way to understand analogue clocks (#5, 6, 9, 26, 30, 31, Table 3).

Seven articles took another approach and focused on sundials (#5, 10, Table 3) or calendars as artefacts related to time (#3, 11, 15, 22, 36, Table 3).

A calendar is an artefact that most often displays the date, the day of the week or whole weeks or months of a particular year. It can also contain just seasonal information. It divides the year into months, weeks, and days, and the cyclic aspect of time can be explored using a calendar. The cyclic aspect of time connects to the use of calendars, where weekdays (base 7), months (base 12), seasons (base 4), weeks (base 52), and days of the year (base 365) are repeated in their respective base.

This cyclic aspect relates to the cyclic aspect of a clock with minutes (base 60) and hours (base 12—analogue clock or base 24—digital clock). Seconds (again base 60) are seldom used in early years when measuring or telling time.

Both the sundial and calendar are artefacts that, similar to a clock, represent a specific point in time. Timetables (#15, Table 3) and time zones (#10, 11, Table 3) differ from the other artefacts in this respect, as they do not denote a specific point in time. Instead, multiple time indications are given in these artefacts with the purpose of making a comparison between times possible. Timetables as an artefact are the printed tables, whereas time zones are not tangible and do not appear as printed tables. Time zones are thus a conceptual artefact but can be represented as an iconic representation of a world map with lines indicating zones.

3.3. Core Aspects

Four core aspects were derived from the articles: telling time, duration, sequencing, and remoteness.

3.3.1. Telling Time

Telling time is about recognising, reading, or expressing the current time. A common activity in the teaching of telling the time is to show children an analogue clock and have them write the time either in digital form or in words (Figure 3).

Doing so connects telling time to reading clockfaces. In connection to reading clockfaces, both the analogue and digital clock appear in the articles, with a majority of the articles focusing on the analogue clock (23 vs. 12). Clockfaces include both analogue clockfaces and digital ‘clockfaces’. A total of 26 out of the 36 articles, spread over the years from 1979 to 2023, focused on reading clockfaces (#1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, Table 3).

3.3.2. Duration

In the core aspect duration, the timespan between two events or clockfaces is focused on. One measures how long an event or process lasts. Duration can thus be connected to clockfaces and events. Duration using clockfaces requires children to be able to read clockfaces. Two specific points in time are given, and children are required to calculate the time between these clockfaces (Figure 4).

Duration for events instead of clockfaces can be regarded as an estimation of time for a specific event or can be related to time of day. Also, a timespan of a specific event can be considered duration. For duration, the event has to be measured using a measurement device, or the starting and ending time must be given, reducing the task to a clockface task on duration. This focus is pointed out in seven articles (#3, 6, 8, 14, 17, 22, 36, Table 3).

In total, 16 articles focused on the aspect of duration (#3, 5, 6, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 36, Table 3). In these, four foci can be distinguished: time interval, time span, events, and measurement. The most common focus among these articles is a focus on time interval, which is pointed out in 12 articles (#3, 5, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 36, Table 3). In five articles focusing on time interval, a focus on time span is also pointed out (#14, 19, 21, 22, 36, Table 3). Time intervals can be described as the time between two events, whereas time span refers to a period of time in which events happen.

Further, eight articles address a focus on measurement connected to duration (#3, 12, 13, 17, 19, 22, 26, 36, Table 3). In these articles, tools for measuring time are used or constructed such as an egg timer, or an hourglass. Measuring time is then connected to measuring the duration of events or comparing two-time intervals. There are two articles about duration that contain the abovementioned four foci (#22, 36, Table 3).

3.3.3. Sequencing

The core aspect sequencing is about ordering events and in activities clockfaces or events can be sequenced. Nine articles address sequencing (#3, 6, 7, 12, 15, 22, 26, 27, 36, Table 3). Most common among these nine articles is a focus on the order of events, which is pointed out in eight articles (#3, 6, 7, 15, 22, 26, 27, 36, Table 3). In these articles, different events are used in connection to sequencing, for example, they can entail ordering pictures of an event chronologically, such as three pictures of a bottle of water that are full, half-full, and empty (Figure 5).

For sequencing, ordering events is the focus. The duration of each event is not important and can be neglected. Sequencing can incorporate a timeline where all events are ordered but can also imply that events are related to a specific point in time. The ordering aspect in such so-called deictic tasks concerns placing the event before or after the given point in time. Ordering events can be performed forwards and backwards. In the bottle task (Figure 5), the pictures should be ordered from empty to full (bottle 3, 1, 2) and a revised order would be 2, 1, 3—which, in this case, can be connected to a logical series of events connected to the context of Sara emptying the bottle. Other events such as logical context cannot be provided, for example, when eating a meal (Figure 6).

Sequencing for clockfaces can incorporate two or more points in time, in which the task is to order the clockfaces in chronological order; only one article had this focus (#12, Table 3).

Further, one of the articles pointed out the difference between unfamiliar and familiar events when sequencing events (#7, Table 3). In this article, the importance of familiarity of events when ordering these was discussed. Further, ordering events backwards and forwards was suggested as an activity when teaching time.

3.3.4. Remoteness

Remoteness entails understanding time distance, meaning to be able to distinguish between near past or distant past. Thus, remoteness is a combination of duration and sequencing. It is about ordering events, whilst, at the same time, taking the duration between the event into account. The aspect of remoteness is specifically mentioned in one of the articles (#27, Table 3).

The four abovementioned core aspects (telling time, duration, sequencing, remoteness) are closely related to what students need to master to obtain a sustainable understanding of time. In the following, three peripheral aspects are important aspects to relate to in the teaching and learning of time but are not described as a knowledge domain.

3.4. Peripheral Aspects

Three peripheral aspects were denoted in the articles: language, associated contexts, and embodiment.

3.4.1. Language

Language is classified as a peripheral aspect of time (Table 3) meaning it is closely related to time, but not a conceptual aspect of time. Language makes it possible to express time through specific time words and expressions (o’clock, yesterday, later) but also through grammar and use of tenses in storytelling.

Language is pointed out as a relevant and related aspect in 15 articles. In ten articles, there is a specific focus on words and expressions (#15, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 28, 32, 36, Table 3). In six articles, there is a specific focus on literacy aspects, including storytelling (#7, 11, 12, 32, 33, 35, Table 3). One article pointed out a focus on both words and expressions, and literacy (#32, Table 3).

Time expressions and time words are used in all four core aspects of time: telling time, duration, sequencing, and remoteness. An awareness of such expressions makes it possible for young children to express time through specific time words and expressions. Since children ask questions about different aspects of time already at a young age, their understanding of time-related language is connected to their awareness of time.

In telling time, the students need to be able to use time words and expressions such as half past, two-thirty-seven, before, in a while, and o’clock. Also, students need to be aware of comparable expressions such as four thirty and half past four (or their equivalent in other languages: half five or half four). This difference in languages is specifically pointed out in one article (#19).

In duration, students need to be able to describe the timespan between two events or clockfaces by using language. This means that students first must be able to read two clockfaces by telling time, calculate the time between them, and describe this using language. If duration is instead related to events, students need to make an estimation of time or use a measurement device. Thus, students need to be aware of expressions such as starting time and end time.

In sequencing, students need to be able to describe how several events can be ordered in relation to each other. Also, the ordering of events is sometimes related to a timeline, sometimes to a specific point in time. Ordering events can be performed both backward and forward, and students need to be aware of words and expressions such as first, second, third, before, and after.

In remoteness, students need to be able to use words and expressions related to both duration and sequencing. This is because remoteness is about ordering events whilst at the same time taking the duration between the events into account.

3.4.2. Associated Contexts

The associated contexts consist of a cultural and cross-disciplinary contexts.3 A cross-disciplinary context can occur when time concepts appear in other school subjects. For instance, in history, sequencing and remoteness are commonly used when ordering historical events using a timeline. Three articles mention this cross-disciplinary connection (#3, 10, 15, Table 3).

Further, cultural contexts related to time are mentioned by two articles as a way to shed light on different understandings of and view on time (#10, 11, Table 3). For instance, the artefact time zones are mentioned from this cultural perspective. Time zones are globally agreed upon but shaped by colonial history, as time connects to associated contexts beyond mathematics (#10, 11, Table 3). Other specific cultural perspectives shed light on aspects of time. One example given is the use of different calendars in different cultures, reflecting religious norms and historically tracing back to agricultural societies. Another example is how the naming of children in some cultures is related to time of birth, which demonstrates specific cultural associations with time. This cultural context incorporates time artefacts, such as the calendar or time zones, as they vary across cultures around the globe.

3.4.3. Embodiment

Embodiment is explicitly stated as an approach in reaching learning goals related to time in 12 articles (#5, 6, 9, 14, 20, 22, 26, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, Table 3). Similarly to the aspects of language and culture, embodiment is considered a peripheral aspect. In the articles where the aspect of embodiment is pointed out, two different foci are put forward: embodiment through constructing clocks and embodiment through experiencing time. Six articles focus on constructing clocks (#5, 6, 9, 26, 30, 31, Table 3) either by constructing clocks using paper and scissors, or by constructing a clock by positioning items in a large circle to represent the positions of one to twelve. Constructing clocks is suggested to emphasise the hour hand before introducing the minute hand.

Yet another take on embodiment is the use of full body movement. In a large, constructed clock, children can act as the hour and a minute hand and position themselves to shape a specific clockface, or walk with different paces to resemble the movement of the minute and hour hand (#6, Table 3), connecting constructing clocks to an experience of time.

Experiencing time is another aspect of embodiment. Experiencing what one minute or five minutes is facilitates an understanding of time, as is pointed out in seven articles (#6, 14, 20, 22, 34, 35, 36, Table 3). This reflects a specific focus on the physical experience of time through embodiment.

3.5. Qualitative Results

In this section, the artefacts, core, and peripheral aspects described above are related to each other. The purpose of this section is to obtain a holistic picture of the teaching and learning of time, resulting in a relevant framework for the teaching and learning of time (Figure 7). In this framework, the core aspects (left) are connected to the artefacts (right) and the three peripheral aspects (embodiment, language, and associated contexts) are in the background, covering the aspects of relevance. Further, events are situated in the background and cover all artefacts, core, and peripheral aspects by providing a contextualization for all time-related aspects.

Embodiment is connected to the core aspects, as well as to the artefact analogue clock. The associated contexts are tightly connected to the artefacts calendar, sundial, and timetables, but also to the conceptual artefact time zones. Language is incorporated in all aspects and artefacts, just like events. Combining the core aspects duration and sequencing (visualized by the dotted arrows to the left) result in yet another core aspect: remoteness. The arrows to the right envision the interrelatedness between the artefacts analogue clock, digital clock, calendar and sundial.

3.5.1. Interrelatedness of Core Aspects, Artefacts, and Peripheral Aspects

The core aspects (Figure 7, left) and the artefacts (Figure 7, right) related to the teaching and learning of time in early mathematics education are interrelated and connected to each other in different ways. For instance, clocks are closely connected to the teaching and learning of time and are used as artefacts in articles where telling time, duration, and sequencing are pointed out as core aspects. One can learn to tell the time by reading clockfaces and use the same clockface in order to calculate what the time will be in 30 min from now or to calculate how much time passes between two different clockfaces. Clockfaces, in this respect, can be both analogue and digital. For the artefact sundial, there is a close connection to telling time in relation to events. Duration, sequencing, and remoteness are not mentioned in relation to the sundial. For the artefact calendar, a connection to the core aspects–telling time, duration, and sequencing–is pointed out in the articles.

Timetables and time zones relate to the teaching and learning of time and enable a connection to everyday life. Previously, timetables were connected to TV guides, but nowadays, they are more connected to travelling and corresponding timetables for buses, trains, and aeroplanes. Travelling also connects to time zones. This aspect can be represented in a world map with lines representing time zones. Timetables are used as artefacts in articles where duration and sequencing are pointed out as core aspects, and time zones are used as artefacts in articles where duration, sequencing, and remoteness are pointed out as core aspects.

3.5.2. The Role of Events

Children’s own experiences play an important role for their opportunity to understand time. This everyday experience can be used as an event in the context of time and can be used in the different core aspects (telling time, duration, sequencing, remoteness). Children’s own experiences of events can be connected to the telling time of an event and using a specific time of day (morning, lunch, after bedtime) of a specific clockface. Also, the duration between different events can be estimated or measured. Other everyday life examples, building upon children’s experience of events are timetables for (school) buses. Here, telling time and duration are closely related core aspects.

When it comes to sequencing, children’s own experience of events can be related to a given event in time. For instance, using the schedule of today’s lessons: did we have English before or after our lunch break? This sort of sequencing (deictic) sometimes suffices. Sequencing events, however, can incorporate more complex actions as well such as ordering several events instead of relating events to a specific point/event in time. Ordering familiar events (forwards and backwards) gives young children something to relate to and enables a deeper understanding of sequencing. Familiar events can also play a crucial role when working with remoteness as children’s own experience of duration of different events can help to understand remoteness. Remoteness includes sequencing familiar events as well as the estimated time of and in between these events.

4. Discussion

This study offers a comprehensive synthesis of the literature addressing the teaching and learning of time in early mathematics education. By categorising the identified aspects into core and peripheral aspects, we provide a structured framework for understanding time as a multifaceted concept within mathematics education. The findings highlight the interconnectedness of linguistic, cultural, and embodied dimensions of time, underscoring the importance of a holistic pedagogical approach.

Telling time through reading analogue and digital clockfaces has remained a consistent focus across decades, reaffirming its centrality in curricula. The predominance of analogue clocks in research (23 of 36 articles) over digital clocks (12 articles) reflects the educational emphasis on understanding the cyclical and mechanical nature of time, despite the increasing dominance of digital time in daily life, already pointed out in 1979 (Jeffers, 1979). Recently, an upper secondary school in Sweden banned all mobile phones and as a result, children appeared late in class after breaks (Huss, 2025). The realisation that there were only analogue clocks in the school and that the children were not able to read these highlights the importance of understanding both artefacts and the ability to shift between these artefacts. Comparing and contrasting analogue and digital clocks sheds light on the distinct affordances and constraints of each artefact. While digital clocks offer clarity and ease in number recognition, analogue clocks provide a richer platform for exploring cyclicity and proportionality (e.g., Harris, 2008). The teaching and learning of time may therefore benefit from an emphasis on both analogue and digital clocks to help children adapt.

Analogue and digital clocks function in different ways and different features need to be paid attention to, in order to make this shift between these artefacts possible. Two examples will serve as an illustration here. First, the analogue clock distinguishes between the hour hand and the minute hand and using linked clocks (where the hands of the clock are linked, so the hour hand slowly moves and then the minute hand rotates a whole turn) or clocks with only an hour hand gives children an opportunity to focus on the hour hand before also including the minute hand (see Maertens, 1980; Nibbelink & Witzenberg, 1981; Thompson & Van de Walle, 1981). This aligns with prior research demonstrating that analogue clocks, though more complex, better support children’s proportional reasoning than digital clocks (Boulton-Lewis et al., 1997).

Second, the numbers on the analogue and digital clocks bear different meanings. For analogue clocks, the digits denote different things, depending on what hand points to the number or tick (e.g., Boulton-Lewis et al., 1997; Earnest, 2022; Williams, 2012). When the hour hand points to digit 2, it is digit 2 that is relevant. For the minute hand, pointing to the two means ten, and the ten ticks are important. For the minute hand, pointing to the 6 means ‘half’. Here, no numbers are used to denote the position of the minute hand. This ambiguity is not apparent in digital clocks. The numbers that are visual are those pronounced. Telling time using a digital clock is thus easier: as long as a child knows the digits and numbers up to 60, it will be possible to tell the numbers on the display—bear in mind that this does not necessarily lead to an understanding of time.

As for duration, time interval is the most addressed sub-focus (in 12 articles), indicating its importance as a bridge between telling time and understanding elapsed time. The use of measurement tools, such as egg timers or hourglasses (Hurrell, 2017), introduces a tangible, experiential component that grounds abstract concepts in sensory experiences, echoing themes explored under embodiment. Related to embodiment, the importance of events in the teaching and learning of time has become clear since events link to all core and peripheral aspects (Figure 7). This resonates well with early mathematics education, which is often organised as play-based activities or events with a cross-curricular purpose (van Bommel & Palmér, 2016). Related to the teaching and learning of time, events are given different roles depending on which core aspect is being focused on. For example, in telling time, events can be connected to a specific time of day, while the role of events in duration can be about estimating or measuring the time between two events. In sequencing, events are related to children’s own experience, while the role of events in remoteness includes sequencing familiar events as well as the estimated time of and between these events. This implies that an early years context, where students get to experience different events, is a suitable context for the teaching and learning of time (see also van Bommel & Palmér, 2016; van Bommel et al., 2023).

Future research should address underexplored domains such as remoteness (Tillman et al., 2017), deepen investigations into sequencing with time representations, and consider longitudinal studies to track developmental trajectories across educational stages. Additionally, the role of technology and digital tools in mediating time concepts remains an important area for further inquiry.

5. Conclusions

In this study, a systematic literature review was conducted, focused on the teaching and learning of time in early mathematics education. Based on a literature review including 36 articles, an overarching research-based framework for teaching and learning of time is suggested.

Since the teaching and learning of time often takes place before schooling starts, the mathematical content of time is relevant for early mathematics education. Previous studies show how young children develop an awareness of time already in preschool, by experiencing time, events, and time-related language on a daily basis (Björklund, 2007). However, when it comes to the teaching and learning of time, there is no consensus among different countries regarding how time should be related to other mathematical contents in the curriculum. As stated earlier, most countries connect the understanding of time to measurement in the curriculum (e.g., ACARA, 2022; DoE, 2021). Measurement, in turn, can be connected to geometry (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2022), quantities, (FMoESR, 2024) or other school subjects (FMoESR, 2024; SLO, 2006; Mullis et al., 2015). There are also countries in which the understanding of time is closely linked to mathematical domains like arithmetic (Walsh, 2003). This shows a lack of uniformity in terms of how and in relation to what the teaching and learning of time should be addressed in early mathematics education.

Based on the dilemma described above, this study suggests an overarching framework for the teaching and learning of time. Unlike previous time-related frameworks in early mathematics education (Burny et al., 2009; Thomas et al., 2016), the focus is not on one or two aspects of time, but rather captures the entirety of aspects pointed out in 36 articles. Included in the framework are core aspects and peripheral aspects which are important for the teaching and learning of time, and artefacts used in the teaching and learning of time. The framework includes four core aspects (telling time, duration, sequencing, and remoteness), three peripheral aspects (embodiment, language, and associated contexts), and six artefacts (analogue clock, digital clock, calendar, sundial, timetables, and time zones). Hence, the framework does not have a specific focus but aims to capture the entirety of aspects to consider and artefacts to use in the teaching and learning of time in early mathematics education. Furthermore, the framework reflects the reality that today’s children face while growing up, regarding time-related artefacts such as digital clocks and time zones.

6. Final Remarks

Teaching a sustainable understanding of time involves an understanding of the central aspects outlined in the framework, but also an understanding of the artefacts and how to use them. Furthermore, language, as one of the peripheral aspects, provides a basis for being able to express oneself and understand time expressions. So, we return to the introduction.

Child: Dad, can I play a bit longer?

Parent: No, hurry on, we need to leave in a moment.

For a child to understand what ‘in a moment’ means a variety of time-related skills are involved. The time expression ‘in a moment’ does not provide an exact time and the child needs to use knowledge of duration to be able to understand what ‘in a moment’ means, in this context, for this specific event. In order to act in line with the answer to this question (can I play a bit longer?), an understanding of the core aspect duration and the peripheral aspects language and events, is crucial.

Child: What time is it?

Parent: Seven o’clock.

Seven o’clock as an answer to what time it is seems to give an exact time. However, expressions used for telling time can vary, and ‘seven o’clock’ can refer to several points in time or can be used as an estimation of time, such as 6:57 or 7:04. The question may have different purposes; a child might be curious and want to know the specific point in time or want to relate the duration of an ongoing event to this point in time.

Child: When is my birthday?

Parent: You just had a birthday, so now it’s your mom, dad, and big brother’s birthday, then it’s your turn again!

In the answer to this last question, the cyclic aspect of time in relation to the calendar is indicated. The core aspects sequential order and remoteness are referred to through mentioning one’s own birthday, in relation to other things that happen during the year (mom’s, dad’s, and big brother’s birthday).

A sustainable understanding of time, incorporating the core aspects, peripheral aspects, and artefacts, will not happen by simply answering questions about time. A structured way of offering the core aspects and making specific connections to the artefacts using the peripheral aspects might contribute to a more sustainable understanding. Our framework aims to offer support for such structured teaching, both at policy and classroom level.