The Role of Sport in Physical Education in Finland and the Kurdistan Region of Iraq—Primary School Teachers’ Reflections

Abstract

There is a lack of studies comparing PE teachers’ reflections on the role of sport in different regions. Using Kirk’s conceptualization of the role of sport, this qualitative comparative study aimed to explore and compare fifth-grade physical education (PE) teachers’ perceptions and experiences related to PE teaching in Finland and in the Kurdistan region of Iraq (KRI). In-depth interviews were conducted with eight Finnish and six KRI teachers, and the data were analyzed using the NVivo qualitative analysis program. The results showed that the Finnish teachers’ reflections were classified into four themes: joy and competence rather than sport, sport and curriculum, the status of sport in society and prerequisites for physical activities and sport. The KRI teachers’ reflections were also classified into four themes: sport as an aim in PE, the teacher as a model and leader of the sport, sport raising one’s status and PE being not only about sport. The role of sport in PE was recognized by teachers from both regions, although from different perspectives. The Finnish teachers made a clear distinction between PE and sport. The KRI teachers perceived PE and sport almost as one, in the belief that PE primarily teaches pupils about sport and that sport itself is a central goal. Both groups of teachers aimed to enhance their pupils’ well-being and encourage a physically active lifestyle through PE. The KRI teachers believed that engaging students in sports would promote these aims, whereas Finnish teachers saw sport as just one of many components needed to achieve these objectives. The Finnish teachers emphasized the national PE curriculum guiding their work, while the KRI teachers had no standardized PE curriculum in primary school. This comparative study highlights the importance of implementing a well-structured PE curriculum in primary schools in the KRI. Further studies should examine how the implementation of such a curriculum will affect KRI teachers’ teaching and the role of sport in PE.

1. Introduction

This research was conducted collaboratively by the Faculty of Education and Culture in Tampere University (TAU), the College of Physical Education and Sport Sciences in the University of Duhok (UOD) and the Faculty of Teacher Education and Arts in Nord University (NU), with academic material exchanges and other publications aimed at developing mutual knowledge of physical education (PE) in both Global North and Middle Eastern countries. Ongoing meetings and workshops for identifying challenges and opportunities for joint research served to reveal many differences in PE between Finland and the Kurdistan region of Iraq (KRI) regarding the educational system, the PE curricula and the PE teacher training programs.

Primary school, both in Finland and the KRI education system, means classes 1–6, but the age of children differs. In the KRI, primary school children are 6–11 years old, and in Finland, 7–12 years old. The status of PE in primary school is different between the regions. In the KRI, 4th–6th grade students have the least number of hours in PE compared to the other subjects. More specifically, the Ministry of Education, Kurdistan Region of Iraq (2025) gives priority to academic subjects, like mathematics with three hours and 20 min per week, while PE is marginalized, receiving only 40 min per week. Annually, students receive only 24 h of PE classes compared to 120 h of other subjects, resulting in a staggering 96 h discrepancy. Also, the lack of proper facilities and funding for PE activities poses challenges to the quality of PE teaching and impairs students’ motivation to participate in PE activities (Mohammed et al., 2024). By contrast, in Finland, PE is a well-recognized subject in schools and indeed in society at large (Yli-Piipari, 2014), and most Finnish pupils aged seven to fifteen attach great importance to PE and think it is useful and interesting (Valtioneuvosto, 2023). PE also has the third largest number of hours in primary school after the mother tongue and math. In grades 4–6 pupils have PE two to three hours per week, mother tongue four to five hours and math three to four hours per week (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2023). Annually, pupils receive 76–114 h of PE, which is over three times more PE than students in the KRI.

In Finland the National Board of Education sets a National Core Curriculum for Basic Education, which covers primary and secondary school. PE aims, content and evaluation are clearly defined in the curriculum, which sounds like quite a rigid and normative system that does not leave space for teachers’ own creativity. This is only partly true, because the teaching methods are not specified in the curriculum, and teachers enjoy considerable autonomy in interpreting and implementing the curriculum. The Finnish national PE curriculum can be seen more like an umbrella than a guidebook. In the KRI a standardized curriculum by the Ministry of Education is conspicuously absent from primary school PE. As a result, PE teachers are tasked with developing a comprehensive yearly plan that allows them to tailor their teaching methods to their students’ specific developmental stages. This strategy should ensure that all students make progress in an equitable manner. At the secondary level the Ministry of Education sets a PE curriculum. KRI PE teachers in primary school have a great responsibility to implement PE according to their own professionality.

In KRI primary schools, PE teachers should have a diploma or bachelor’s degree in PE to teach PE. Both include about 100 credits in PE studies. Some teachers may also have masters’ degrees in PE. In Finland, primary school PE is usually taught by class teachers, who have a master’s degree in education, which includes a compulsory PE course in the first or second year of studies, carrying some five credits. In some universities students can also specialize in PE and take 25 credits in optional PE courses. Subject teachers in PE (holding the degree of Master of Sport) work mostly in secondary schools or high schools. Some subject PE teachers may also teach in primary school, but this is not very common. Overall, Finnish teachers in primary school PE are highly educated, but their background in PE studies may vary a lot. KRI primary school teachers in PE are likewise well educated, having studied a lot more PE and being more specialized in PE than their Finnish counterparts.

It became apparent through these discussions that realizing the full benefits of PE, encompassing physical, social, cultural and emotional aspects, requires qualified teachers with a comprehensive understanding of their field and teaching methodology, who are reflective and critical thinkers with a strong commitment to their work. Additionally, teachers should be capable of effectively interpreting and exploring the PE curriculum and its main goals in education. Teachers’ reflective skills are crucial for professional PE, and reflection should also be addressed in teacher education (Eugénia et al., 2022; Moon & Lee, 2022; Tsangaridou, 2005; Zhu, 2011).

Discussions in the collaboration group (TAU, NU and UOD) revealed that there are differences in the status of PE in school and in society between Finland and the KRI, related to teacher education and in primary school to PE curricula. In earlier comparative studies of different regions and countries, it has been found that the concept of PE and sport does not have the same meaning in different countries (Andriamampianina & Si Moussa, 2005). Also, PE teachers’ professional identity as teachers is different (Alcalá et al., 2019). Students perceive their PE classes differently (Carcamo-Oyarzun et al., 2020) and have differences relating to self-competence in PE and the importance attached to PE in relation to other subjects (Dismore et al., 2006). Thus, the authors wanted to explore Finnish and KRI primary school PE teachers’ perceptions and reflections regarding PE teaching according to the aims, practices, curriculum and teaching. Only limited research has specifically examined the perceptions and reflections of PE teachers, particularly from a comparative perspective, including different regions such as the KRI and Finland. The initiative of this article lies in the aspiration to achieve a more profound mutual understanding of PE teaching in two such disparate regions with large social and cultural gaps, aimed at further developing PE teaching practices. Comparing such different educational contexts could reveal a more comprehensive understanding of PE. The initial analyses of the interview data on PE teachers in Finland and the KRI revealed interesting and different findings about the role of sport in PE. This study examines the role of sport in PE among Finnish and KRI primary school PE teachers.

In relation to the initial findings regarding the differing findings related to the role of sport in PE, Kirk (2010) and his concept of “physical education as sport techniques” is a relevant theory. The concept describes how PE is approached in schools, where PE is focused on teaching de-contextualized, isolated sports techniques without considering their broader context or students’ understanding and engagement. It even omits other valuable aspects of physical activities, like autonomy, relatedness, competence (Deci & Ryan, 2000), health promotion (Haerens et al., 2010) and responsibility (Hellison, 2003). Although competitive sports have assumed a prominent role in today’s cultures, and school cannot be disconnected from society, it has been argued that many of the benefits of PE will be lost with markedly sports-centered teaching (Kirk, 2010; Quennerstedt, 2019; Vlieghe, 2013). This has led to a search for alternative approaches to sports-centered teaching (e.g., Kirk, 2010; Quennerstedt, 2019; Enright & O’Sullivan, 2010; Oliver & Hamzeh, 2010) or better methods to implement sport in PE (e.g., Bunker & Thorpe, 1982; Siedentop, 1994; Ward, 2014). Kirk (2010) points out three main arguments from the role of sport related to the concept of “physical education as sports techniques”. First is the importance of the PE curriculum changing the existing sports focus in PE teaching. The second is the role of PE teacher education (PETE) educating reflective and critical thinkers committed to reforming and developing PE. The third is the danger of losing focus in PE when the curriculum does not strictly specify the content of teaching. In this study, PE teachers’ reflections related to the role of sport in PE will be discussed in the light of Kirk’s (2010) concept, “physical education as sports techniques”.

The role of sport in PE can be viewed from an institutional level, like curriculum and other policy documents, or from a more practical level, like students’, teachers’ and teacher educators’ perspectives. On an institutional level, the role of sport has been a dominant discourse in PE curricula and policy documents for many decades (Kirk, 2010; Svendsen & Svendsen, 2016; Webb et al., 2008), which has perpetuated the situation in PE that Kirk (2010) describes with the concept “physical education as sports techniques”. The study by Hakala and Kujala (2015) exemplifies the role of sport in the curriculum in Finland. They examined the ethos of sport in Finnish PE curricula for basic education back to 1985 and found that until the recent 2014 PE curriculum, PE had been based on national traditions of sports and exercise. The authors argue that the ingredients of the ethos of sport, such as nationalism, gender roles, rationality, self-discipline and achievement orientation, have been silent partners operating tacitly in PE education, while alternative discussions on modern values like ecological issues, multi-culturalism and gender equality have been neglected. Also, many studies from several other countries (Grahn, 2014; Kirk, 2010; Moen et al., 2018; Säfvenbom et al., 2015; van Amsterdam et al., 2012) have identified a strong role of sport in PE.

Hakala and Kujala (2015) argue, however, that the Finnish curriculum of 2014 has the potential to change the prevailing culture, as it has taken a big step towards the modern values of PE and away from sport-centered discourse. This new PE curriculum has ten objectives of instruction to be evaluated in primary schools, and only one sport (swimming) is mentioned (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2014), which is a clear sign of a PE reform. The redefined objectives of instruction in the curriculum could efficiently change teachers’ prevailing pedagogical practices, as studies on teachers’ assessment after the Norwegian curriculum reform 2020 point out (Tremoen et al., 2024; Tremoen & Lagestad, 2024). However, the question related to the importance of the curriculum in creating the movement culture in PE can be discussed. Teachers may adapt and modify the curriculum to match their existing practices to continue to teach as they have always done, without challenging their beliefs (Arnesen et al., 2013; Capel & Blair, 2007). In the KRI there is no national primary school PE curriculum, and teachers must make yearly plans by themselves. The aims, methods and practices in PE are thus more dependent on individual teachers’ teaching philosophy and beliefs. On the other hand, this allows potential space for teachers’ agency and innovation and gives possibilities to develop PE with more flexibility, without the challenges of the previous traditions of curriculum.

The ethos of sport seems to be hidden in PE in students’, teachers’ and teacher educators’ minds. Säfvenbom et al. (2015) researched Norwegian adolescents’ attitudes and motivation towards PE and found that PE seems to favor students involved in competitive youth sports. They argue that PE follows the logic of competitive youth sports, while youth sports participants get most of the benefits of PE, which at worst may produce social inequality in health. Dyson et al. (2018) explored primary school teachers’ perceptions of PE and noticed that their teaching was much sport-centered, neglecting the needs of mainstream pupils. Mordal-Moen and Green (2014) for their part found a strong focus on sport when they interviewed 15 PE teacher educators from Norwegian universities who viewed learning to teach PE as a practical process revolving around the teaching and coaching of sports skills. Also, the studies by Dowling and Kårhus (2011), Mordal-Moen (2011) and Svendsen and Svendsen (2016) found a strong role of sport in PE teacher education. This seems to be explained by the fact that teacher educators usually have a background in sport and are resistant to change the sports-centered teaching tradition (Mordal-Moen & Green, 2014; Svendsen & Svendsen, 2016; Jacobs et al., 2013), which may explain the sustainability of decades of “just doing the sports” in PE. It may be that PE teacher education does not include enough studies from other viewpoints than sport in PE, the alternative perspectives are seen as a separate piece of PE, or students’ sport-centered identities with their peers is prioritized over critically reflecting on traditional PE practices. However, focusing on sports in PE lessons does not always mean that sport is the aim, as the study by Larsson and Karlefors (2015) proves. They observed 30 secondary school PE lessons in Sweden and found that two-thirds of the lessons focused on different sports. Interestingly, neither learning sports skills nor winning the game was important here, but trying out different sports and playful play were of importance. Such lessons can be called “looks-like-sport”, according to Ward and Quennerstedt (2015). Although such activities are of value in increasing physical activity in an entertaining manner, Ward and Quennerstedt (2015) ask where the learning is. Like Kirk (2010), they concluded that a lot of exercises in PE are decontextualized from sports without thinking how they promote learning or the other focal aims of PE. This phenomenon was already recognized 30 years ago, when Crum (1993) used the concept of “nonteaching” when referring to PE activities that do not display any teaching–learning character but are rather oriented towards fitness training or entertainment. Changing and developing prevailing practices in PE demands reflective thinking, which is crucial for professional teachers (Eugénia et al., 2022; Moon & Lee, 2022). At the same time, PE teachers may perceive socio-cultural expectations from students to be sporty, cool people who have nice, relaxed and entertaining classes, which causes difficulties for teachers to change sport-focused PE practices or engage students with more systematic teaching–learning processes.

There is a vast body of research on PE teachers’ reflections on the role of PE, from specific (e.g., Anttila et al., 2018; Gano-Overway & Guivernau, 2014; Hardin, 2005; Jacobs et al., 2013; Tremoen et al., 2024; Tremoen & Lagestad, 2024) to more general views (e.g., Barrie et al., 2016; Bjørke et al., 2023; Kunnari, 2011; Tsangaridou & O’Sullivan, 1997; Tsangaridou, 2005; Virkkunen, 2011). Also, practices in PE and in PE teacher education have been reviewed (Eugénia et al., 2022; Moon & Lee, 2022; Standal & Moe, 2013). Nevertheless, there are far fewer studies comparing reflections and perceptions of PE in different countries. McEvoy et al. (2017) compared PE teacher educators’ perceptions regarding the purpose of school PE in seven countries. Andriamampianina and Si Moussa (2005) examined PE teacher education curricula and teacher educators’ attitudes in China and France. Alcalá et al. (2019) compared the effects of a TPSR training program on teachers’ social goals, discipline and autonomy strategies in Spain, Chile and Costa Rica. Carcamo-Oyarzun et al. (2020) compared students’ perceptions of PE in Chile and Germany, and Dismore et al. (2006) researched Japanese and English schoolchildren’s views on PE. Nevertheless, studies focusing on PE teachers’ reflections and perceptions of the role of sport in PE from a comparative perspective in different regions seem to be missing. This gap limits cross-cultural learning, hinders context-sensitive reforms in PE and misses diverse perspectives on what PE can and should be. The aim of this study is to compare primary school PE teachers’ reflections related to the role of sport in PE in Finland and in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.

2. Methods

2.1. Design

In this study we adopted a qualitative methodology drawing on a phenomenological–hermeneutic approach as a strategy to shed light on the research question (Tjora, 2017). Such an approach focuses upon a person’s relation to the object or phenomenon to be experienced and is preferred when wanting teachers’ reflections related to the role of sport in PE (Laverty, 2003). Hermeneutic orientation in a phenomenological approach tries to understand the meanings from historical, contextual or autobiographical perspectives.

This was achieved by conducting in-depth interviews with PE teachers from Finland and the KRI regarding their opinions, attitudes and reflections related to their work as PE teachers. In addition, their reflections on videos showing typical PE teaching in an indoor and an outdoor environment in the other region were examined. The same participants, procedures, data collection and analyses are also used in Lagestad et al. (2024), related to difference in autonomy, but new analysis is offered by focusing on data related to the role of sport in PE. Reflection is understood as the process of thoughtfully considering and critically analyzing one’s actions, experiences and decisions to gain deeper insight and enhance future practice (Dewey, 1933; Schön, 1983). In this study, reflective responses emerged when teachers revisited past experiences, questioned current methods or expressed intentions to change. Additional reflections were prompted by showing video clips of PE classes from the other region, encouraging cross-contextual comparisons. Examining teachers’ experiences and perceptions provides insight into their teaching realities, revealing both challenges and opportunities. Perception is the cognitive process by which individuals organize, interpret and make sense of sensory information from the environment to form an understanding of the world around them (Goldstein, 2014). Perceptions are shaped by past experiences and, in turn, influence future experiences, creating a continuous cycle of interpretation and meaning-making. Socio-cultural backgrounds, values, beliefs and education further shape these perceptions, enriching the concepts and analyses that emerge from research, while attitudes reveal teachers’ emotional and motivational orientations (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993), which are crucial because they directly affect teachers’ behaviors and practices and the classroom climate. Attitudes can determine openness to new teaching strategies, relationships with students and overall effectiveness in the classroom. To facilitate a comparative analysis of teachers’ approaches to PE teaching in Finland and the KRI, two videos from typical fifth-grade PE classes (both indoor and outdoor PE) lasting 70–90 min were recorded in both regions, to represent ordinary PE teaching. Videos were considered the easiest way for the other partner to observe and help in understanding how PE teachers interpret and implement the curriculum in daily PE work and what kind of teaching methods they use. Videos also show the contextual aspects of the other region, such as social and cultural conditions and the physical PE facilities, although the main aim was to stimulate reflection. The videos were edited to 10–15 min lengths (representing small pieces of all the essential parts of PE teaching and activities) and subtitled in English to facilitate the analysis. Both the recording of the videos and the data collection of the interview data were conducted in an ethical manner, and all the necessary permits, including parents’ consent for recording PE lessons, were obtained in both Finland and the KRI. The research project followed the ethical guidelines on research on humans and the human sciences laid down by the Finnish National Board on Research Integrity (2019) and the research ethical regulations at the University of Duhok The research procedure and interview data from adult volunteer participants did not meet the criteria of the ethical review (Finnish National Board on Research Integrity, 2019). The research project is in accordance with both Finland and KRI ethical regulations related to research. The study was also conducted in compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

2.2. Description of Participants

The participants were recruited using strategic selection (Thagaard, 2013) based on the inclusion criteria, namely being PE teachers for 5th grade students in Finland or the KRI and having a bachelor’s or master’s degree in PE or a master’s degree in education (class teacher). The 5th grade teachers were chosen as participants because they represent the PE teachers in the middle stage of compulsory education, when students are quite skillful but still developing. These teachers also had typically different educational backgrounds in both countries. To ensure diverse representation, teachers were selected from various public schools across the respective regions, considering gender balance and a mix of novice and experienced educators. The selection process utilized local PE teacher networks to identify suitable participants. In all, eight Finnish PE teachers (four male and four female) and six KRI PE teachers (three male and three female) agreed to participate in the study after being contacted by the researchers. The Finnish PE teachers’ ages ranged from 28 to 49 years (Mean = 38.5 years; SD = 8.25), and their experience of being a PE teacher ranged from 1.5 years to 30 years. All the Finnish teachers had a master’s degree. The Kurdish PE teachers’ ages ranged from 24 to 59 years (Mean = 37.8 years; SD = 12.77), and their experience of being a PE teacher ranged from 5 years to 25 years. All the Kurdish teachers had a bachelor’s degree, and all the Finnish teachers had a master’s degree. None of the accepted participants withdrew from the study. The sample of 14 physical education (PE) teachers from both Finland and the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRI), representing diverse genders and a range of teaching experiences across different public schools, is quite suitable for a qualitative, in-depth interview study. Data collection was concluded once theoretical saturation was reached, ensuring a broad representation of experiences and supporting the credibility of the findings. We ended the interview process after 14 participants, as no new significant themes or relevant information emerged at that stage (Weller et al., 2018).

All participants received a participant information sheet, were informed verbally and in writing about the research objectives and were given a detailed description of the data collection protocol, assurances of anonymity and assurances regarding their rights and privacy. Participation was voluntary, and they were free to withdraw from the study at any time. No personal information except age, gender, nationality and years of teaching experience was elicited. The research data were to be handled confidentially, and the participants were not identifiable in the data or in publications. In this article participants were given artificial names (pseudonyms) to maintain confidentiality.

2.3. Procedures

A semi-structured interview guide with open-ended questions was created by the research team from different countries through multiple discussions during several meetings. The interviews were divided into two parts. In the first part the questions were inherently more general, such as, “What methods/instruction approaches do you use to achieve your goals?” and, “What is the connection/relationship between competitive sport and PE activities?” The second part was a video-stimulated interview where participants were shown two instructional 10–15-min videos of typical indoor and outdoor fifth grade PE classes from the other region. The videos from the KRI PE classes were shown to the Finnish teachers, and the videos from the Finnish PE classes were shown to the KRI teachers. The questions in the second part of the interview were focused more on interviewees’ reflections on the video, such as, “What did you learn from the videos that you would like to talk about?” and, “How do the environment and equipment impact your teaching?”

Two pilot interviews were conducted to test the interview guide. One of these took place in Norway and the other in the KRI. The Norwegian pilot interviewee was a 29-year-old male PE teacher, and the KRI pilot interviewee was a 39-year-old male PE teacher, both teaching PE in the fifth grade. Both pilot interviewees were interviewed using the interview guide and watching the videos. The Finnish PE class video was shown to the KRI teacher, and the KRI PE class video to the Norwegian teacher. Both pilot interviewees were asked to be critical of the interview structure and the clarity of the questions. At the end of the interview, they were asked about their reflections related to the relevance to PE teaching. The results of the pilot interviews were discussed by the research team. The pilot interviews indicated that the most questions were relevant, but some were too detailed. In the final interview guide the number of questions were decreased, some questions were modified to be more open, and the order of the questions was made more consistent.

The interviews with the Finnish PE teachers were conducted in the Pirkanmaa region face-to-face except for one, which was conducted online with Microsoft Teams. The interviews with the KRI PE teachers were conducted face-to-face in the region of the city of Duhok in the KRI. Most interviews were conducted in the participants’ mother tongue (Finnish or Kurdish) except for three interviews in Finland, which were conducted in English. However, these participants also had the option to communicate in Finnish at the end of the interview. The interviews lasted between 60 and 90 min.

2.4. Analyses

The interview data were transcribed, translated into English and analyzed with QSR NVivo 12 (Lumivero, Burlington, United States). Cultural nuances were considered in transcriptions. All interviews were transcribed by local experts with the same cultural and linguistic background as the interviewees to avoid misunderstanding. The analysis was based on the participants’ answers to the questions collected during the interviews, in which teachers’ perceptions of experiences were taken as subjectively true (Armour & Griffiths, 2012). The data are based on subjective constructions that the teachers verbalized when processing their own interpretations and reflections on what takes place in PE at school and reflections related to the outdoor and indoor video of fifth-grade PE lessons in the other region. The analysis focused on meanings, as described by Johannessen et al. (2016). The PE teachers’ statements are identified according to the theme of experiences related to their teaching and planning of PE and their reflections on PE. With such an approach, the data from the interviews are analyzed to elucidate patterns, similarities, relationships or differences between the statements from Finland and the KRI. The analysis and this interpretation follow hermeneutical principles in that the interpretation process led to an increasingly more profound understanding of the statements in the interviews (Kvale, 1983).

First, the data from the PE teachers’ interviews were read through repeatedly and coded into themes in Nvivo, formed from the interpretations of the teachers’ statements during the interview. The use of NVivo significantly enhanced our analysis by providing a robust platform for organizing, coding and visualizing qualitative data, which allowed us to systematically categorize data into themes, ensuring consistency and reliability in our analysis. Four researchers from Norway, Finland and the KRI were engaged in the analysis process, and various alternatives for interpretation and perspectives of themes were discussed among them. This strategy contributed to intersubjective consensus in the analysis, decreased the misinterpretations and strengthened the credibility of the findings. By means of coding the teachers’ expressions, several themes were created. One of the main themes emerging during the open coding of the teachers’ interview data was the role of sport in PE.

The analyses revealed that all the Finnish and KRI PE teachers mentioned the importance of sport in PE. All text related to the role of sport in PE was read through, analyzed and classified into smaller subcategories, which were condensed expressions from the interview material. Next, smaller subcategories were combined into larger final categories and renamed, with the aim of finding differences between categories. The inclusion criterion in forming the final categories was that at least two teachers had reflected that theme, which led to excluding a few separate subcategories. Other codes that were related to autonomy were developed into themes and were presented and discussed in another study (Lagestad et al., 2024). The area of the role of sport is not a part of either the research question or the main categories of the previous study, even if the same interview data are used in both studies. One author was responsible for making an initial analysis of subcategories related to the role of sport, which were discussed by the research group when forming the final main categories. Finally, four different categories from the interview data related to the role of sport in PE were found among both Finnish and KRI teachers. The research group involved four researchers and PE experts from different countries who individually and collectively discussed and agreed upon the final eight categories, which increased the reliability of the findings. The progress of the analysis process from subcategories to the final categories is described in

Table 1. Analysis of Finnish teachers’ view of the role of sports in PE.

Subcategories	Final Categories
Making classmates enjoy Special PE class for goal-oriented students Balancing with sporty students’ competitiveness and joy of movement Competition as a tool Adapt PE according to the students’ needs Joy of movement Encouraging the less active to participate Competitive sport is different Physical activities for joy outside of PE lessons Everyone can be good Avoiding comparison Use sport talent and skills to help classmates Create opportunities for success Learning from failures	Joy and Competence Rather Than Sport
Social goals Many different activities in the curriculum Broad curriculum Lack of focus on specific sports Evaluation criteria Swimming is the only sport in the curriculum Focusing on motor skills, not specific sports Teamwork Supporting classmates Sports have been trending in PE for decades Change away from specific sports has been positive	Sport and Curriculum
Traditional physical activities National teams’ example National special sports Finns are sporting oriented and value PA Collaboration with sports clubs Changes in national sport culture Sport trends in society are present in PE	Status of Sports in Society
Knowledge and skills Teachers’ attitude Showing context for skills Example of active person	Prerequisites for Physical Activities and Sport

(Finnish teachers) and

Table 2. Analysis of KRI teachers’ view of the role of sports in PE.

Subcategories	Final Categories
Finding a suitable sport for student Practice is important Support students to train Importance of sport Sport practice supports life Regulations of sport Lack of real sport facilities Teaching knowledge of sports Techniques of sports Video replacing authentic sport facilities	Sport as an Aim in PE
Teacher’s example leading to the sport Follow the teacher Students’ freedom is difficult to control Students need control Leading the lesson is tiring	Teacher as a Model and Leader of the Sport
Show talent in championships Prominent students are admired Sport success helps students Proud of sport Sport leading to the college of PE More focus on prominent students	Sport Raising Your Status
PE should be entertainment at first and more serious later PE prepares for military recruitment Not only football Special methods Developing physical bodies and skills Cooperation with classmates Take account physical differences Grouping according to the level and social aspects Fair play Learning new skills Suitable freedom	PE Is Not Only Sports

(KRI teachers).

3. Results

The analysis revealed that Finnish and KRI teachers’ reflections on the role of sport in PE could be classified into four different categories among both groups of teachers. Finnish teachers’ reflections were classified in these categories: joy and competence rather than sport; sport and curriculum; status of sport in society; prerequisites for physical activities and sport. Respectively, KRI teachers’ reflections were classified in these categories: sport as an aim in PE; the teacher as a model and leader of the sport; sport raising one’s status; PE being not only about sport. These main results will be presented in detail with demonstrative citations.

3.1. The Role of Sport in PE—Finnish Teachers’ Views

3.1.1. Joy and Competence Rather than Sport

The analyses showed that all eight Finnish teachers made some kind of distinction between sport and PE. They perceived students’ joy, success and competence as more important aims in PE classes than learning or training a certain sport. They highlighted that everyone could be good in some physical activities, and they tried to encourage those who were not active to find joy and success while moving, as stated by Heikki: “Physical education in schools primarily focuses on encouraging those who are less active to participate”. The overall impression among the Finnish PE teachers was that PE is very inclusive compared to sport, which is more segregated in nature. The teachers did not say that sport is bad or does not belong within PE, but they highlighted that there were far more important aims in classes than sport itself. They also had to justify the use of other activities than sports activities to their students, which Leena clearly expresses:

In my class they always like to play football and I have to explain it’s not the only thing we need to do, we have to do different things and I have to say we are practicing this activity and next week we are doing different things, […] not always football…and I have to tell them that it is very important to do many things.

Many Finnish teachers talked about the competition related to PE. Some teachers even avoided the competition through using more inclusive strategies when teaching some sports, although there were always students who wanted to compete. Tuula described that situation:

In PE activities we do not have competition, we need to learn that everyone can be good at sport, and you do not need to be the best. But for them [the students] it is difficult because there is always someone who wants to be the first and the best, for example when they run or …. If we play football, we don’t keep scoring, it’s just time to have fun and enjoy.

Leena expressed how in the worst-case competition and comparing have a negative impact on students’ self-confidence and prevent their participation in PE: “…it is not good to compare and say, ‘I am not good at this’. There are always some children who do not do anything, because they compare, and it is not good because the differences are so wide.” Most teachers were not so black-and-white in their views on competitions. Instead, they tried to develop competitions where no one was eliminated or developed activities where students competed against themselves. Matti explained his method using competition in a task-oriented way:

We practice various ball tricks. There are easier moves that everyone can do, but there are also more challenging ones that only a quarter of the group can perform. Then there might be an easier move again that everyone can do. The goal is to structure the class in such a way that provides opportunities for success, and if there is failure, students can overcome it.

Some teachers tried to guide competitively oriented students to use their skills to help others instead of competing against others—thus focusing on collaboration instead of competition, as Anneli stated: “If there are highly competitive players, I say that a good player is someone who can make others good and be a team player and encourager.” Competitions in play and games were even viewed as an important tool in PE to learn how to handle the different emotions emerging in a safe environment, as highlighted by Matti:

It doesn’t always have to involve keeping score or tallying points, but it allows students to learn about both winning and losing in a safe environment. I consider it crucial because many children struggle with handling feelings of loss or disappointment, and physical education provides a suitable setting to experience both success and failure.

A couple of Finnish teachers reflected critically on the importance of inter-school competitions and highlighted the joy of movement and the sense of accomplishment as much more important than achievements in competitions, as Anneli states: “Inter-school competitions, what is their purpose? Is it about winning and selecting those who can play or is it about selecting those who are enthusiastic? I guide my physical education classes towards physical education and the joy of movement, as I mentioned earlier.” The analyses showed that the Finnish teachers argued that competitive sport gave the students enough competitive experiences during their free time, and that PE should give them different perspectives on movement. Heikki explained how teaching students who were heavily engaged in sport could be great, but challenging:

All of them are really motivated in sports, and it’s great to teach those classes. One challenge is managing students’ competitiveness and maintaining a balance. Sometimes the competitive nature of some students can overshadow others, so finding that balance can be a challenge.

3.1.2. Sport and Curriculum

Six Finnish teachers clearly reflected the relationship between sport and the curriculum. The lack of specific sports, except swimming, in the current PE curriculum (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2014) was often mentioned during the interviews. The teachers made a clear distinction between specific sports and the PE curriculum and highlighted the importance of social and moral goals, as exemplified by Matti:

We learn the rules of games, fair play, how to handle winning and losing. These are essential objectives, along with promoting teamwork and supporting classmates while working together. It’s not so much about emphasising specific sports, but rather acquiring those skills through different activities, including different sports.

Also, the aims in the curriculum focusing on general motor skills instead of on specific sports skills were seen as positive—giving teachers autonomy and opportunities for creativity when developing activities. Although some parents complained about the lack of sports in the curriculum, the teachers pointed to the current curriculum as modern and as the right development, as Matti aptly stated:

The change that occurred a few years ago, moving away from a focus solely on specific sports, has been positive. Although sports are still included, and students learn various skills through them, the emphasis is no longer solely on sports, sports, and more sports, which may have been the trend in physical education for decades.

While the Finnish teachers emphasized the social goals of the curriculum, they also spoke about skill levels regarding the evaluation, which was somewhat contradictory. Heidi reflected critically on the evaluation criteria of the curriculum, because the students’ activities in their free time might affect their grades:

Of course, there’s also the fact that many of the children who engage in competitive sports in their free time are naturally strong in physical education as well. And many of those differences in skill levels come through that, and it may distort the assessment because then it’s not caused by the school itself.

Most Finnish teachers related the curriculum only to the PE lessons, although the importance of physical activity at school outside the PE lessons is also stated in the general part of Finnish National Core Curriculum for Basic Education (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2014). Only Pasi noticed the physical activities as a part of school culture and its importance for improving interpersonal and social relationships among students:

It is very important to make the physical activity system in the whole school, and moving is part of the school culture and students’ social networking. Because they are friends, and they play, and they could make new friends through physical activities. It is like a way to socialize.

3.1.3. Status of Sports in Society

The status of sport in society was reflected in five Finnish teachers’ interviews. In general, these teachers noticed the shift from individual and endurance sports to more team sports in Finnish society and recognized the same change in PE activities at school. Matti argued that the achievement of Finnish national teams has influenced PE:

Finland has been known internationally for endurance sports, and it has likely influenced physical education in the past. In recent years or decades, there has been a strong emphasis on various team sports, where Finland has approached or reached the top globally, and that has also had a significant impact on physical education.

Nevertheless, traditional activities were not seen to be disappearing in PE; rather, the diversity of activities has become larger. Also, the seasons and even geography still have a major impact on activities in Finnish PE, as Anneli described: “Well, at least these traditional sports are still respected and favored, and we follow the seasons, so we ski and ice skate in winter. Finland is a land of thousands of lakes, so we go swimming.”.

Ice-hockey and football were named as team sports that are very popular in Finland, and that was also reflected among the students. Anneli pointed towards the change in the coaching culture in team sports and argued that it was also supporting PE: “Perhaps the success of the national Finnish ice-hockey and football teams, as well as their coaches, has brought this kind of soft coaching culture to Finland. In my opinion, it fits quite nicely into physical education, so it’s not necessarily all about winning.”. Matti argued that it was not only the team sports that had come to school along with the changes in sports culture in society, but also all kinds of new physical activities: “Moreover, physical education teachers are often experimental and enthusiastic about new things. Therefore, whatever is currently prominent in Finnish culture often finds its way into physical education, either directly or by being showcased there.” The Finnish PE teachers highlighted their important roles to present new activities at school. Also, the collaboration with sports clubs was referred to as providing a variety of activities. The interconnection between society and PE was perceived as rooted in the friendship of Finns with nature historically, as well as the collective willingness to become a healthier society, as Pasi pointed out:

I think Finnish society wants to be healthy, and we are quite healthy. In the last ten years, the country has invested a lot of money in physical education through organizing different programs such as the program called ‘Access and Permission to Move,’…Generally, I believe everybody respects physical education as much as other subjects, or even more. I’m not sure why, but it might be due to our history and our close connection to Nature. I also have a fondness for history.

The Finnish teachers described both society and the family as deeply ingrained in Finnish culture, providing children with opportunities to enjoy the natural environment and engage in outdoor activities, as Tuula highlighted: “I think society also deems PE important—that kids can be outside and can have fresh air, and they spend time outdoors. PE is important in Finland. In Finland lots of people like sport and that’s in our feeling that it is important.”.

3.1.4. Prerequisites for Physical Activities and Sport

Four Finnish teachers reflected on how they would like to provide students with the prerequisites for physical activities and sport. It was apparent that these teachers wanted to share a positive attitude towards physical activities with students, as well as knowledge and skills, so that they could also participate in physical activities and sports outside school. The teacher’s own attitude towards physical activity and sport was seen as a key motivation factor for students. Even the teacher’s own sportiness was regarded an important factor, as Pasi described: “I am personally a sporty person, and I have played different sports in my life. I always tell the students how sport can help them to be healthy and enjoy.” Leena explained how crucial it is that teachers appreciate PE, have content knowledge about what they are teaching and are good role models in a physically active lifestyle: “So it is important that the teachers believe doing sport is important, do that for themselves and then teach it I myself should be an example, I should take myself as a role model, and I used to tell them that in my free time I run and cycle.” Difficulties in accessing facilities, teachers’ nonengagement in physical activities and the lack of certain sports skills were mentioned as things which might negatively affect their chances to provide students with the prerequisites for PE, as Leena stated:

Some teachers have less motivation, and it is because of access to facilities, so if the facilities are closed or accessible, it impacts the teachers’ motivation. If the teacher does not do sport, it also impacts his or her motivation for teaching PE.

These negative factors were presented as the possible problems of other teachers, not their own.

Regarding the acquisition of skills in PE, the teachers reflected on using various instructional materials and methods. Heikki mentioned using a video to introduce certain sports or skills to students before training: “Sometimes when introducing a new sport that the students have tried, it could be beneficial to show them a small video of professionals playing it, just to give them a visual idea.” Such an instructional video can compensate for the teacher’s lack of skill and is also useful for presenting the context where and how the skills are used. All in all, the Finnish teachers did not specifically define the prerequisites or skills with which they wanted to provide their students. They considered providing prerequisites more holistically and viewed the presence of the teacher as much more important than the content of teaching. The Finnish teachers’ reflections here were closely related to their professional pride in their work.

3.2. The Role of Sport in PE—The KRI Teachers’ Views

3.2.1. Sport as an Aim in PE

Four of the teachers from the KRI pointed towards sport as a main aim in PE, where their ambition was to introduce their students to the different sports and help them to achieve their potential in the best possible way. During the interviews, the teachers talked about how they first checked students’ bodies and evaluated their potential for specific sports. They also helped the students to find suitable sports which they could exercise more and become good at. Darya described this process: “If somebody says that he likes basketball or football, we need to check his body, his height, and physiology whether he is suited to the sport. If not, he goes to another sport. You need to plan what the student likes and show him the way to follow up.” Some teachers wanted to devote more effort and support to those students who had potential and tried to guide them to sports clubs, as Sherko explained:

For example, I had a player who could do high jump on cement, so I took him to the institute and brought him sponge mats to practice with. Then he came second at the level of high school. I invest more focus and time in such students to support them and some of them have become players in [name] Sports Club.

The teachers of the KRI were also very proud of their students’ achievements. At the same time, they had to convince parents of the importance of sport, as Darya points out: “One girl was seven years old. Her body was flexible and suitable for gymnastics; the movements that she makes must be supported by the teacher, not only by her parents. The teacher must convince the parents step by step for their child to do more movements.”.

Although identifying the students’ potential for different sports was much discussed, the teachers also highlighted that they also wanted to support every student to play sports for their well-being, and they claimed that they tried to get students to “love sports”. Jiyan reflected upon how participation in sport a strategy for empowerment and getting out of the negative issues of everyday life for a while: “I want the student to love the PE class and to derive benefit from it their whole life. I want to show them the right guidelines for practicing sports to be away from casualties and disasters, because sports take us away from negative things in life.”.

The lack of suitable facilities restricting some sport training was noted by several of the teachers from the KRI. However, training a certain sport was experienced as a very important aim in PE. Instead of doing some other physical activity, which could be possible, teachers tried to teach the desired sport skills in theory, using drawings and videos and asking students to use their imagination to create sports circumstances, as illustrated by Zilan:

I take the students to the other side where I first explain the subject theoretically to them by drawing the technique on the board and when it is rainy, I use a data show. They will do pole vault theoretically through the steps I show them, but there is no actual place to put it into practice. The students cannot feel the sport authentically in this way due to not having actual practice, they only saw the game on TV and of course not all of them.

In addition to playing sports, the theoretical knowledge of different sports was also deemed important in PE. Before practicing, teachers explained the rules, techniques and circumstances to the students in detail to make sure they would get enough content knowledge about each sport. Sometimes teachers used theory lessons in class before actual training, as Zilan described: “For example, for track and field, I draw everything on the board backed up by a data show. Then we go to the yard to show them the triple steps.”.

3.2.2. Teacher as a Model and Leader of Sport

The analysis of the interview data revealed that four of the teachers from the KRI perceived the teacher as a model. The teachers argued that they were the people who led the learning process and served as role models for the students. Darya exemplifies this: “My plan is that I tell them how I was, and they need to adopt the same steps of mine also I show them a plan on a video and there is a practical way to teach them how to learn gymnastics, for example.” The teaching methods the teachers from the KRI described were straightforward, teacher-centered and disciplined. Teachers had a strong mission that PE is aiming at the sport.

The analyses of the data also pointed to other explanations for the finding related to the teacher as a model. Regarding the teaching methods, the teachers were afraid of losing control of the class if there was too much student autonomy. Karwan described this: “We cannot give them this freedom because we have many students in our classes, and we will lose control. Freedom is really important as it takes students away from boredom and they release their pent-up energy in a productive way.” The teachers from the KRI were also concerned about the students’ ability to concentrate on learning. They wanted to control teaching situations so that the students would be better aware of what they were supposed to do and learn. Autonomy was also seen as problematic leading to decreased safety, as reflected by Azad after watching the videos of Finnish PE: “When the teacher let them free to play games alone; this may be dangerous for the students. We should give the students freedom, but not total freedom; there should be some limits.” It was also noticed that too much student autonomy makes it difficult for the teacher to concentrate on all students equally. Sherko described how students cannot take responsibility for their learning when the teacher is not leading the class:

Our student, when he sees there is no supervision, he tends to be naughty or stops exercising sports unlike their [Finnish] students, who continue doing the exercises even if the teacher is not right there. Getting students to assume such roles in a PE class is very difficult for me.

When reflecting about teaching methods, one teacher from the KRI reflected upon how he gets very tired in PE class using teacher-centered methods and trying to control the learning process, compared to the Finnish teacher in the video, who was allowing more student autonomy.

3.2.3. Sport Raising Your Status

Two teachers from the KRI reflected on how achievement in sports in the KRI can raise the students’ status among their peers and in the eyes of their parents and even help students to get into further studies. The teachers from the KRI honestly tried to do their best to support students with potential in their sports and felt proud when they succeeded in it. Interestingly, teachers did not concentrate only on helping prominent students but also tried to create a sport-friendly climate for the whole school so that students with potential would get more support. The teachers argued that if they could make PE classes more entertaining and interesting, all the students would be more interested in sports and want to socialize with those students who were good at sports. This is prominent in a statement by Jiyan: “The activities that we perform are entertaining and interesting and I believe that our people are interested in sports as you go to school. You are the star, and all the students want to engage in conversation with you and want to approach you.”.

The teachers from the KRI highlighted that parents were sometimes suspicious about their children’s sports participation and appreciated academic achievement over sports. Because of this, the teachers tried to show the parents how important sport is for many students. Darya explained how they invited parents to the school sports tournament to see their children in school championships: “We have championship football matches between two classes, and the parents are invited. This makes the families encourage their kids, and we tell them that this sport is what their child wants.” There were also some challenges at the social and family level; some parents were afraid that participation in sports would hamper academic achievements. Darya pointed out that the teachers tried to change this misconception by increasing the parents’ knowledge of sport:

We offer students social advice, as their families usually tell them not to do sports as their level will drop both physically and academically. They tell them not to play football as they may fall. Many times, we open sports courses and ask the students’ parents to come and see how we teach their kids, and this makes them encourage their kids to do sports.

The teachers from the KRI felt great pride if they could help the students to be involved in sports and be successful in it. Jiyan described how they tried to help promising students to obtain further education in sports at college: “We have many students who are fond of sports, and they get admitted to either an institute or college of physical education due to our having encouraged them, and the love that we imprint in their minds for sports.” The teachers from the KRI looked upon their role of getting students to love sports as remarkable and were satisfied if they saw students following their path from being a good player to becoming a sports student at college, as Jiyan concludes: “I see myself in them.” The analyses revealed that the KRI teachers’ own strong interest in sport and their personal stories engaging heavily in sport had an impact on seeing sports raise the students’ social and moral status at school.

3.2.4. PE Is Not Only Sports

Although the importance of sport in PE was much emphasized in the KRI teachers’ reflections, five of the six teachers noted that aspects other than sport were important in PE. In the first years of primary school, they focused more on entertaining the children and having fun than teaching specific sports skills. Also, developing the physical aspects of the body was a priority in the early years, and developing the body was seen as a prerequisite to skill acquisition, as Jiyan described:

We develop the physical aspect in students then we move to develop their skills, so the priority is for bodies then their skills. If I develop their physical aspect, their learning skills will be easier. For example, we have students whose way of walking is imbalanced, we must show them how to walk, how to use their hands with their feet and we show them how to develop their fitness, so we are concerned with their bodies and skills.

The teachers from the KRI were concerned about students’ health and well-being and found PE an essential way to promote students’ health. Darya noted how PE should be taken equally in comparison with other subjects and considered more seriously in the later years of primary school. Teaching methods should also be strongly connected to military recruitment, as highlighted by Darya:

The last three years must be taken more seriously in teaching physical education with a view to military recruitment so that the students know that the subject of physical education has its own aspects as other subjects have, and it is not only football. If you do not employ such methods in your teaching, you will not be a successful teacher.

The competitiveness of students was considered when playing the games. There were always some students who wanted to win, while some teachers from the KRI tried to create opportunities for every student to participate, whatever their skills or potential might be. The methods clearly set the aims of the activity beforehand and used small games instead of real sport. Sherko described the first method: “I put big circles on the ground, and I ask them to move their circles, but I tell them, the game needs to be played nicely without any clashes, and such an instruction is taken but not one hundred percent as the students are still kids.” Karwan talked about developing skills through small games: “I told them we should not stop, but we should always be creative, giving the students the impression that there is always something new and many skills can be taught through small games.”.

4. Discussion

The analyses of the Finnish and KRI PE teachers’ interview data pointed towards the role of sport in PE as a main theme, and further analyses revealed eight subcategories, four from each region. The four subcategories of the Finnish teachers’ reflections were categorized as joy and competence rather than sport, sport and curriculum, status of sport in society and prerequisites for physical activities and sport. The four subcategories of KRI teachers’ reflections were classified as sport as a goal, the teacher as a model and leader for the sport, PE being not only about sport and sport raising one’s status. These findings will be discussed in a comparative manner and in the context of Kirk’s (2010) concept of “physical education as sport techniques,” as well as other relevant literature.

Although the role of sport in PE was well recognized among both the Finnish and the KRI PE teachers, their perspectives and reflections differed. Overall, the analyses revealed that the Finnish teachers made a distinction between PE and sport, and they perceived sport more as one of the tools or content that helped them to educate the children and create physical activity in PE. The KRI teachers seemed to take the view that PE is about sport, that PE is about educating students for sport and that sport itself is an important aim in PE. The conceptualization of physical education (PE) varied among teachers from different regions, which is consistent with the earlier findings of Andriamampianina and Si Moussa (2005). However, many similarities were also found between the Finnish and KRI PE teachers.

The first key finding was that the Finnish teachers emphasized joy, success and competence over specific sports in PE. Physical activities were viewed as tools for promoting social goals and positive experiences rather than mastering particular sports. Competitiveness was framed either as a task-oriented method to foster peer support or to help students manage negative emotions in a safe setting. In contrast, the KRI teachers prioritized fostering a love for sport, which may risk reinforcing inequality and demotivation among less athletic students. While the KRI teachers focused more on sport as the main aim, they also valued engagement and enjoyment, especially in early primary years—aligning with the Finnish teachers, though using different terminology. The Finnish teachers emphasized delivery methods like task-oriented activities, whereas the KRI teachers focused more on task content. In later primary years, the KRI teachers saw PE as a pathway to sport and physical development, including preparation for military service—an aspect absents in the Finnish teachers’ reflections. Both teachers emphasized students’ competence but in different ways. The KRI teachers tended to associate competence with physical skills and athletic ability, whereas the Finnish teachers also linked competence to social skills and expressed particular concern for students who were less physically adept.

The finding that the KRI teachers emphasized sport as the primary aim of physical education (PE) in their reflections aligns closely with Kirk’s (2010) concept of “physical education as sport techniques.” Our results indicate that the PE practices of the KRI teachers were centered on teaching decontextualized, isolated sport techniques, with little attention to broader educational or developmental contexts. While competitive sports hold a prominent place in contemporary culture—and schools inevitably reflect societal values—it has been argued that an overly sport-centered approach to PE may undermine many of its potential benefits (Kirk, 2010; Quennerstedt, 2019; Vlieghe, 2013). Such a narrow focus risks neglecting other essential dimensions of PE, including the promotion of autonomy, relatedness, competence (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Lagestad et al., 2024), health enhancement (Haerens et al., 2010), development of personal and social responsibility (Hellison, 2003) or learning through sport (Bunker & Thorpe, 1982; Siedentop, 1994; Ward, 2014).

A second notable finding was that the Finnish teachers frequently referred to the national PE curriculum as a guiding framework, whereas the KRI teachers did not mention it at all. This aligns with structural differences: Finland has a standardized national PE curriculum (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2014), while the KRI lacks a formal primary school PE curriculum, requiring teachers to develop their own plans. Despite this, the KRI teachers consistently emphasized sport as a central aim, suggesting a shared understanding possibly rooted in teacher education, tradition or personal interest. Rather than perpetuating a sport-centered approach to teaching, the absence of a standardized physical education (PE) curriculum in primary schools in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRI) may have fostered greater teacher agency, enabling educators to develop more diverse and adaptable PE practices unencumbered by traditional constraints. However, in the absence of curricular support, a PE teacher acting as a solitary change agent may find it more feasible to adhere to established practices rather than initiate reform. The Finnish teachers, by contrast, highlighted the curriculum’s role in shaping PE around physical, social and psychological goals, with only one of ten objectives (swimming) being sport-specific (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2014). The self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) has significantly influenced the development of the Finnish national physical education curriculum for basic education (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2014), and all three basic psychological needs identified in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000)—competence, relatedness and autonomy—were evident consistently in the reflections of the Finnish teachers. Their reflections support the idea that curriculum reform can influence practice, aligning with findings from Norwegian studies (Tremoen et al., 2024; Tremoen & Lagestad, 2024) and contrasting with Capel and Blair (2007) and Arnesen et al. (2013), who noted teacher resistance to change.

The role of the curriculum in guiding teachers’ work is not always straightforward. The Finnish national PE curriculum (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2014) is strongly goal-oriented but does not prescribe specific teaching content or provide very detailed evaluation criteria. As a result, Finnish teachers enjoy considerable autonomy in determining lesson content and assessment methods, provided these align with the curriculum’s overarching goals. Many Finnish teachers highlighted the importance of enjoyment and the opportunity to try new activities in PE—elements that are also supported by the curriculum. However, without careful attention to the learning process, physical activities risk remaining at the level of mere entertainment (Larsson & Karlefors, 2015). At worst, PE can become “nonteaching” (Crum, 1993), lacking a clear teaching–learning structure and serving only fitness or entertainment purposes. When the sole aim is the joy of movement, it becomes challenging to define learning outcomes or establish meaningful evaluation criteria. The Finnish national PE curriculum (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2014) places significant responsibility on individual teachers to ensure long-term continuity in the teaching–learning process. In contrast, while KRI teachers did not follow a standardized PE curriculum, their sport-related instruction demonstrated a clear continuity in pedagogical progression. This suggests a strong potential for KRI teachers to extend their structured, goal-oriented methods to other educational aims and content areas. Also, Finnish teachers could learn from the systematic and goal-driven teaching approaches observed in the sport-related practices of their KRI counterparts.

Despite the absence of a standardized PE curriculum, the KRI teachers shared a common goal: encouraging students to love a sport and supporting talented individuals toward club sport participation. They also assessed students’ physical traits to match them with suitable sports, resembling talent identification (Vaeyens et al., 2008). While general PE aims differed between Finland and the KRI, both groups of teachers promoted physical skills, well-being and active lifestyles. Finnish teachers emphasized diverse activities aligned with curriculum goals (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2014), whereas the KRI teachers focused on finding the right sport for each student. This sport-centered approach, however, was challenged by limited sport-specific facilities. Finnish teachers, guided by a flexible, non-sport-specific curriculum, adapted their teaching to available resources and prioritized learning environments over specific sports. Research has highlighted the drawbacks of sport-centered teaching, including its reinforcement of gender roles, rationality and achievement orientation (Grahn, 2014; Hakala & Kujala, 2015; Moen et al., 2018; Säfvenbom et al., 2015; Kirk, 2010; van Amsterdam et al., 2012). The findings of this study suggest that a non-sport-specific curriculum can also support teachers in adapting PE instruction to various facilities, without being constrained by the specific requirements of individual sports.

The third significant finding was that while the KRI teachers reflected on the importance of sport in PE in many contexts, the Finnish teachers highlighted the role of sport in PE only when they spoke about sport in society. The Finnish teachers argued that the shift in Finnish society from individual endurance sports to team sports also affected PE activities at school, where team sports activities like ice-hockey and floorball had become popular. Interestingly, the Finnish teachers also highlighted that the success of “softer” and more modern coaching methods of those national team coaches, like focusing on group dynamics, co-operation and players’ well-being, had demonstrated that those well-known PE methods also worked well in elite sport.

While the influence of society related to the sports focus in PE practices has been widely criticized (Kirk, 2010; Quennerstedt, 2019; Vlieghe, 2013), the Finnish teachers pointed towards many positive connections between modern sports coaching practices and PE. It should be noted that sports and coaching cultures are not stable and may also change pace with society to a more human, holistic and inclusive culture (Côté et al., 2013; Davis et al., 2019; Day, 2017; Jones et al., 2010). It can be argued that PE will always reflect the situation of the prevailing movement culture in society, and rejecting all sports dimensions from society may create unnecessary confrontations between students and PE teachers. Instead, we argue that PE teachers should actively find those practices from the movement cultures and sports within society that support the aims of PE. This highlights the importance of defining PE and its aims in a curriculum. Without a comprehensive and clearly defined PE curriculum, the traditional ethos of sport, nationalism, fixed gender roles, rationality, self-discipline and performance orientation may infiltrate from sports to PE lessons, blocking the educational potential of PE (Grahn, 2014; Hakala & Kujala, 2015; Moen et al., 2018; Säfvenbom et al., 2015; Kirk, 2010; van Amsterdam et al., 2012).

A fourth notable finding concerns how differently teachers positioned themselves in PE. Finnish teachers saw themselves as role models for an active lifestyle, emphasizing a positive attitude over personal skill. In contrast, KRI teachers viewed themselves as leaders and controllers, modeling sport through discipline and technical instruction. While the Finnish teachers valued personal attributes to inspire students, the KRI teachers stressed didactic skills and effort, though they found this approach exhausting. These reflections partly diverge from Mohammed et al. (2024), where KRI high school teachers emphasiszed social engagement and cross-curricular integration—topics largely absent in the present study. Differences may stem from teacher education: the KRI teachers held bachelor’s degrees in PE with around 100 credits, while the Finnish teachers had master’s degrees in education with only 5–25 PE credits (except one with a Master of Sport Sciences and 120 PE credits). Prior research (Dowling & Kårhus, 2011; Mordal-Moen, 2011; Svendsen & Svendsen, 2016) links extensive PE training to a strong sports ethos, reflected in KRI teachers’ pride in guiding students into sport. This traditional sport-centered teacher identity is well-documented and resistant to change (Mordal-Moen & Green, 2014; Svendsen & Svendsen, 2016; Jacobs et al., 2013). Teachers’ professional identities appeared to differ across regions, aligning with the findings of Alcalá et al. (2019). Most of the Finnish teachers had class-teacher education, which might affect their teacher identity. Maybe they did not feel the need to present themselves as “cool” or sporty during PE lessons; instead, they could adopt the role of an educator, maintaining continuity with their teaching approach in other subjects. These findings, along with earlier research, highlight the need for greater emphasis on reflexivity in PE teacher education (Eugénia et al., 2022; Moon & Lee, 2022; Tsangaridou, 2005; Zhu, 2011). This is not to suggest that PE should be reduced in teacher education, but rather that greater attention should be given to how PE activities are framed and what educational goals they are intended to serve.

It may be argued that the original idea of competitive sport was to find who is the best and put the participants in order. The Finnish teachers did not find this appropriate in PE. Instead, they strove to find methods to make PE equalizing rather than discriminating, and, in contrast to the KRI teachers, they made no mention at all of affecting students’ status. The Finnish teachers’ reflections were more focused on students’ experiences when performing physical activities and the intrinsic value of physical activities—not what they could achieve during PE compared to other students. However, the idea of sport raising one’s social status is supported by many studies (Seippel & Bergesen-Dalen, 2024; Kovács & Pusztai, 2024; Schüttoff et al., 2018), starting from Bourdieu’s (1978) classic article, and in that sense, sport-focused PE could be well understood. In the KRI sports knowledge and participation have also been shown to be linked to increased feelings of national pride and common identity (Sulaiman et al., 2024), which may explain the sport-focused PE in the KRI. On the other hand, if the initial idea behind PE activities and practices is built upon the notion of supporting students who are good at sports, this contrasts with the aim of what PE should be (Grahn, 2014; Kirk, 2010; Moen et al., 2018; Säfvenbom et al., 2015; Quennerstedt, 2019; Vlieghe, 2013). Sport-oriented PE may blindly follow the traditions of ancient competitive sport by copying their methods (Jacobs et al., 2013; Kirk, 2010; Mordal-Moen & Green, 2014; Svendsen & Svendsen, 2016; Webb et al., 2008).

5. Strengths and Limitations of the Study

This study used long, in-depth (between 70 and 100 min), semi-structured interviews related to the PE teaching of 14 teachers from two different countries, which for qualitative studies is many participants and long interviews. With such a strategy, the study provided novel insights into teachers’ perceptions and reflections about their PE teaching. This comparative study of teachers’ views from diverse cultural backgrounds provided valuable insight into the PE literature, particularly regarding PE in the KRI. Video-stimulated interviews allowed participants to reflect on their own and other cultures’ PE practices. The choice of which videos to record and share can introduce bias. The selected videos might not fully represent the typical PE classes in each region, potentially skewing the comparative analysis. While videos show social and cultural conditions, they might not capture all contextual aspects, such as the broader educational policies. Furthermore, few videos might not cover the full range of teaching methods and curriculum implementation. PE classes can vary significantly, and a small sample might not provide a comprehensive view. However, despite these limitations, videos are still a valuable tool for stimulating reflection and discussion. They provide a visual and practical insight into the teaching practices and environments, which can be very informative. All the teachers had taught PE in the fifth grade, which renders the comparison of reflections reliable. Also, the participants represented novice and experienced teachers and had an equal division of men and women in both regions, which promotes diversity of reflections. No discernible patterns emerged in the reflections based on teaching experience or gender. The participants’ backgrounds—whether novice or experienced, male or female—were not apparent from the interview data alone, which supported an unbiased analysis of the results. However, the study has some limitations. It is not feasible to extrapolate the findings to a broader population, due to the absence of an experimental setting and a small non-randomized sample. The findings have a credible general validity, as the initial data analyses were conducted independently by all four authors and then discussed together, and the participants in the respective regions appear consistent in their reflections. This strengthens the credibility and reliability of the study. However, there is also a possibility of misinterpretations at some points because most of the interviews were conducted in the mother tongue of the teachers and translated into English. Also, the cultural and linguistic differences might have affected the understanding of the concepts used in interview situations because the semi-structured interview guide was made in English, but the interviews were conducted mostly in Finnish and Kurdish. Differences in educational backgrounds and degrees among teachers in Finland and the KRI may also affect the results. Specifically, the differences in educational qualifications between the two regions may have influenced the outcomes of the study. Given the limitations of this study, future studies should involve more PE teachers from Finland and the KRI, and an experimental design would also have been valuable in generalizing the findings.

6. Conclusions

The aim of this study was to examine the reflections, perceptions, experiences and attitudes of eight Finnish and six KRI primary school teachers regarding the role of sport in PE teaching. This was accomplished by analyzing detailed, semi-structured, video-stimulated interviews using a phenomenological–hermeneutic method. During the interviews participants were shown a compilation of videos from typical indoor and outdoor PE teaching in the other region to foster reflection. These videos were recorded at the beginning of the study to help formulate the interview questions for the PE teachers. Initial analysis using NVivo 12 qualitative software revealed significant insights into the role of sport in PE, highlighting significant differences between the two groups.

The analyses revealed that the Finnish PE teachers’ reflections related to sport could be classified into four subcategories: joy and competence rather than sport; sport and curriculum; status of sport in society; prerequisites for physical activities and sport. The analyses of the KRI PE teachers’ reflections related to sport were classified into four subcategories: sport as an aim in PE; the teacher as a model and leader of the sport; sport raising one’s status; PE being not only about sport. The role of sport in PE was acknowledged by both the Finnish and the KRI PE teachers, although they discussed it from different viewpoints. The Finnish teachers distinguished between PE and sport, considering sport as one of the tools or content used to educate children through physical activities in PE. By contrast, the KRI teachers saw PE more as synonymous with sport, believing that PE educates students about sport and that sport is a key objective.

Laakso (2003) has written that the dual purpose of PE is to educate in physical activities and educate through physical activities, which demonstrates the essential difference between the Finnish and the KRI teachers’ conceptions of the role of sport in PE. The KRI teachers’ reflections were more related to the former purpose, while the Finnish teachers’ reflections were more related to the latter purpose. Despite these differences, many similarities were also identified. Students’ well-being and supporting a physically active lifestyle were shared aims in PE for teachers in both countries, but the role of sport in promoting those aims was different. The KRI teachers thought that sport as such would promote the aims of PE if they got students involved in the sport, while the Finnish teachers perceived sport as only one element among many others to achieve those aims.

Our findings related to Kirk’s (2010) concept of “physical education as sport techniques” can be presented through three key arguments. First, the role of curriculum in shifting PE away from a sport-centered model is evident. The 2014 Finnish PE curriculum emphasized effort, positive experiences, motor and social skills and togetherness over specific sports (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2014; Hakala & Kujala, 2015). These priorities were reflected in the Finnish teachers’ responses. While curriculum reforms are often criticized for limited impact (Arnesen et al., 2013; Capel & Blair, 2007), our findings and those of Tremoen et al. (2024) suggest they can influence teaching practices. In contrast, the absence of a standardized primary PE curriculum in the KRI leaves defining the aims for individual PE teachers. Given that a secondary-level curriculum exists, we recommend developing a national PE curriculum for KRI primary schools with clear goals. Second, PE teacher education (PETE) plays a critical role in shaping teaching practices. KRI teachers, with significantly more PE credits, focused more on sport, suggesting PETE may reinforce rather than challenge pre-existing beliefs (Curtner-Smith, 2001). As Mordal-Moen and Green (2014) argue, PETE recruits often struggle to envision alternative models and resist change. While this does not imply reducing PE content in PETE, it highlights the need for broader, less sport-focused training. Finnish teachers’ diverse academic backgrounds likely supported their adoption of the 2014 curriculum despite their own sporting histories. Third, when curricula lack specific content guidance, there is a risk of losing educational focus. Finnish teachers had autonomy to align lessons with curriculum goals, often emphasizing enjoyment and variety—values supported by the curriculum. However, without clear learning objectives, PE risks becoming mere entertainment (Larsson & Karlefors, 2015) or “nonteaching” (Crum, 1993). The Finnish national PE curriculum 2014, with its broadly defined contents, allocates considerable responsibility to individual teachers to create a clear long-term continuity teaching–learning process. Finnish teachers could learn goal-oriented working methods from the KRI teachers, who had a clear continuity in the teaching–learning processes. This sports-focused consistency in teaching could also be implemented to the other aims and contents of PE.

A main conclusion in the study was the importance of implementing a lived, standardized PE curriculum in primary schools in the KRI. Further studies should examine how the implementation of a PE curriculum in primary schools in the KRI will affect the teachers’ teaching and the role of sport in PE. Additionally, comparing PE practices across countries with different curricula can provide valuable insights into how curricula are constituted and how they shape and guide PE teaching. Also, an intervention to apply the Finnish PE curriculum to a different culture like that in the KRI would be interesting and could enhance the understanding of how the PE curriculum affects PE practices, teaching methods and learning.