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Education Sciences
Volume 15
Issue 12
10.3390/educsci15121618
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Review

Early School Leaving by Design—Prevention, Intervention and Compensation—A Policy Analysis of Early School Leaving and Underachievement Interventions in Europe

by
Martin Brown
1,*,
Joe O’Hara
1,
Sarah Gardezi
1,
Gerry McNamara
1,
John O’Hara
1,
Geraldine French
2,
Grainne McKenna
2,
Aideen Cassidy
1,
Anne Rowan
1 and
Michael McNamara
1
1
EQI—The Centre for Evaluation Quality and Inspection, DCU Institute of Education, D09Y0A3 Dublin, Ireland
2
School of Language Literacy and Early Childhood Education, Dublin City University, D09Y0A3 Dublin, Ireland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(12), 1618; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15121618 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 15 September 2025 / Revised: 19 November 2025 / Accepted: 21 November 2025 / Published: 1 December 2025
Versions Notes

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to provide a comparative policy analysis of successful strategies that have been implemented across European countries to address early school leaving (ESL) and academic underachievement. Employing a transformative and multidimensional approach, the study examines systemic and local interventions that integrate cognitive and socio-emotional dimensions of learning. Using Eurostat data to categorise countries based on their ESL reduction progress, the analysis evaluates legislative frameworks, policy initiatives, and educational practices through the prevention, intervention, and compensation model. The findings identify common themes such as the expansion of early childhood education and care (ECEC), enhancement of guidance and counselling services, targeted support for socio-economically disadvantaged groups, inclusive policies for marginalised populations including Roma communities, and the development of vocational and second-chance education pathways. The paper highlights the critical importance of coherent and scalable policy design to reduce educational inequalities and contribute to achieving European Union ESL reduction targets by 2030. It advances policy discourse by emphasising the essential need for balanced preventive and compensatory measures to improve educational outcomes and to foster social inclusion across varied national contexts.
Keywords: early school leaving (ESL); school dropout; underachievement; educational policy; prevention-intervention-compensation framework; European Union (EU) 2030 target; early childhood education and care (ECEC); educational inequality early school leaving (ESL); school dropout; underachievement; educational policy; prevention-intervention-compensation framework; European Union (EU) 2030 target; early childhood education and care (ECEC); educational inequality

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MDPI and ACS Style

Brown, M.; O’Hara, J.; Gardezi, S.; McNamara, G.; O’Hara, J.; French, G.; McKenna, G.; Cassidy, A.; Rowan, A.; McNamara, M. Early School Leaving by Design—Prevention, Intervention and Compensation—A Policy Analysis of Early School Leaving and Underachievement Interventions in Europe. Educ. Sci. 2025, 15, 1618. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15121618

AMA Style

Brown M, O’Hara J, Gardezi S, McNamara G, O’Hara J, French G, McKenna G, Cassidy A, Rowan A, McNamara M. Early School Leaving by Design—Prevention, Intervention and Compensation—A Policy Analysis of Early School Leaving and Underachievement Interventions in Europe. Education Sciences. 2025; 15(12):1618. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15121618

Chicago/Turabian Style

Brown, Martin, Joe O’Hara, Sarah Gardezi, Gerry McNamara, John O’Hara, Geraldine French, Grainne McKenna, Aideen Cassidy, Anne Rowan, and Michael McNamara. 2025. "Early School Leaving by Design—Prevention, Intervention and Compensation—A Policy Analysis of Early School Leaving and Underachievement Interventions in Europe" Education Sciences 15, no. 12: 1618. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15121618

APA Style

Brown, M., O’Hara, J., Gardezi, S., McNamara, G., O’Hara, J., French, G., McKenna, G., Cassidy, A., Rowan, A., & McNamara, M. (2025). Early School Leaving by Design—Prevention, Intervention and Compensation—A Policy Analysis of Early School Leaving and Underachievement Interventions in Europe. Education Sciences, 15(12), 1618. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15121618

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