Supporting Teacher Professionalism for Inclusive Education: Integrating Cognitive, Emotional, and Contextual Dimensions

Abstract

This study examined how cognitive, affective, and sociocultural factors shape teachers’ readiness for inclusive education, focusing on the interplay between attitudes, emotional concerns, and self-efficacy. A survey of 149 elementary school teachers from diverse communities employed three validated instruments to assess these constructs. Overall, teachers expressed moderately positive attitudes toward inclusion and relatively high levels of self-efficacy, yet emotional concerns were consistently present. Importantly, correlational analyses revealed that emotional concerns fully mediated the relationship between attitudes and self-efficacy, underscoring the central role of affective dimensions in shaping teachers’ professional confidence. Teachers with prior training or direct experience with students with disabilities reported lower emotional concerns, suggesting the value of practice-based professional learning opportunities. Sociocultural differences also emerged, with differences across communities, pointing to the influence of communal norms on emotional readiness for inclusion. These findings highlight the need to reconceptualize teacher professionalism in inclusive education as integrating cognitive, emotional, and contextual dimensions. Implications include designing professional development programs that combine knowledge, practice, and emotional preparedness, alongside culturally responsive approaches tailored to minority communities.

1. Introduction

Preparing teachers for inclusive education requires more than knowledge of legal frameworks or pedagogical strategies. It calls for a deep transformation in teachers’ professional identity, emotional readiness, and instructional confidence. Positioned within the broader agenda of teaching staff development for professional education, this study examines how attitudes, self-efficacy, and emotional concerns shape teachers’ preparedness for inclusion.

1.1. Conceptual Foundations of Inclusive Education

Inclusive education represents a comprehensive approach that goes beyond the physical placement of students with disabilities in mainstream classrooms. According to the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, it involves adapting educational environments, teaching methods, and curricula to ensure equitable access for all students without discrimination (UNICEF Regional Office for Europe and Central Asia, 2017). This vision requires systemic transformation, rather than student adaptation, and is grounded in broader theoretical frameworks from social justice, human rights, and educational philosophy. Contemporary models emphasize six dimensions: learning and difference, social justice and human rights, empowerment, creativity, humanism, and praxis, all of which underscore the need to value diversity and remove barriers to participation (Middleton & Kay, 2019; Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2024). It also demands sustained professional support to develop teachers’ capacities, both cognitive and emotional, to implement inclusive practices.

Beyond its grounding in human rights principles, inclusive education is supported by compelling practical justifications. These include demonstrated educational benefits for all students, enhanced social cohesion through tolerance and understanding, and cost-effective service delivery (European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, 2024).

The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), adopted in 2006, marked a pivotal shift in global disability rights. Article 24 of the CRPD mandates that states develop inclusive education systems at all levels, grounded in four principles: non-discrimination, reasonable accommodation, individualized support, and full participation (UNICEF Regional Office for Europe and Central Asia, 2017; Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2024). United Nations Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2016) further interprets Article 24, emphasizing that inclusion requires systemic transformation that redefining curricula, pedagogy, assessment, and school culture. States are obligated not only to avoid excluding students with disabilities from general education, but to actively provide tailored support that maximizes both academic and social development (European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, 2024). Despite its transformative potential, recent scholarship notes that implementation remains uneven, as many countries continue to operate parallel systems of mainstream and segregated education (Dunajeva, 2025).

1.2. The Israeli Legal Landscape: Rights and Tensions

Israel’s Equal Rights for Persons with Disabilities Law, enacted in 1998, laid the groundwork for advancing disability rights within Israeli society. Its overarching goal is to safeguard the dignity, autonomy, and full participation of individuals with disabilities across all areas of life (State of Israel, 1998). The law addresses a wide range of domains including employment, transportation, and accessibility, and established the Commission for Equal Rights for Persons with Disabilities to oversee its implementation. Rooted in the social model of disability, the legislation emphasizes that barriers are socially constructed rather than inherent to the individual. It articulates three guiding principles: the recognition of human dignity, a commitment to equality, and the obligation to provide reasonable accommodations. Crucially, it mandates that services for people with disabilities be delivered within the general service systems, with appropriate adjustments made as needed to ensure access.

Despite its progressive vision, the implementation of the Equal Rights Law has faced persistent challenges, particularly in the domain of education. The Israeli State Comptroller highlighted governmental delays in enforcing accessibility standards and the lack of sufficient funding to support inclusive practices (Rimmerman et al., 2005). A key difficulty lies in the law’s limited integration with the existing Special Education Law, which operates according to a categorical model of disability. This dual legal structure, combining a rights-based framework with a parallel, diagnosis-based educational policy, has produced inconsistencies in service provision and hindered the realization of inclusive education goals (Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2023). These tensions underscore the need for legislative and structural reforms that align educational practices with human rights principles.

1.3. Policy Reform in Israel: Amendment 11 and Its Implications

Amendment 11 to Israel’s Special Education Law introduced two significant reforms intended to promote inclusive education: the “Parents’ Choice” model and the “Funding Follows the Child” principle (Bar, 2025; Bar & Kanj-Sirhan, 2019). The amendment allows parents to choose between mainstream and specialized educational settings, reflecting a broader policy shift toward respecting parental autonomy and reducing financial barriers to inclusion (Blass, 2022; Isman & Laufer, 2024). In parallel, budget allocation is now based on functional assessment and is detached from the type of educational placement. This restructuring aims to ensure that funding follows the student, thereby removing financial incentives for segregation and enabling more equitable support across educational environments (Blass, 2022).

Initial evaluations of Amendment 11 reveal mixed outcomes. Although the reform has enhanced parental involvement and introduced inclusive rhetoric into the educational discourse, it has not led to a substantial rise in mainstream placements (Blass, 2022). Studies point to several barriers limiting its effectiveness, including insufficient teacher training, lack of adequate resources, and persistent parental preferences for specialized settings (Bar, 2025). These challenges underscore the complexities involved in translating legal and policy shifts into sustainable, inclusive educational practices (Isman & Laufer, 2024).

These gaps between policy vision and classroom practice highlight the urgency of examining teachers’ emotional and cognitive readiness for inclusion, particularly in under-resourced or culturally complex contexts.

1.4. Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Inclusion in Arab Society

Research examining the attitudes of teachers in Arab society in Israel toward inclusive education reveals a complex and often ambivalent picture (Karni et al., 2011; Vizer-Karni & Reiter, 2014). While teachers frequently express principled support for inclusion, particularly regarding students’ social, emotional, and academic development, they also voice serious concerns about implementation. A nationwide survey of 754 Arab teachers identified a clear gap between stated endorsement of inclusive values and the actual practices observed in classrooms. This discrepancy, reflecting broader systemic tensions, includes doubts about inclusion’s impact on typically developing students, as well as concerns about school reputation and educational quality (Vizer-Karni & Reiter, 2014). This gap between endorsement of inclusive values and their practical enactment reflects not only structural and cultural barriers but also challenges in shaping teacher professionalism as an integrated construct of knowledge, practice, and emotional readiness.

In addition to organizational constraints, cultural and social dynamics in Arab society significantly affect the implementation of inclusive education. Many schools lack formal policies on inclusion and suffer from limited accessibility (Karni et al., 2011; Vizer-Karni & Reiter, 2014). Beyond infrastructure, deep-rooted cultural attitudes often shape how disability is perceived. Majadley (2019) reports that Arab parents frequently experience shame or fear of community judgment when raising a child with disabilities, occasionally resulting in children being kept out of public life and educational frameworks. These stigmas not only limit parental engagement, an essential factor in successful inclusion, but also place additional emotional and practical burdens on teachers. Understanding these cultural contexts is critical for interpreting teachers’ attitudes and designing effective, context-sensitive inclusion policies.

1.5. Barriers to Implementation: Training, Collaboration, and Family Engagement

Studies consistently identify inadequate teacher preparation as a primary barrier to effective inclusion in Arab schools (Karni et al., 2011; Vizer-Karni & Reiter, 2014). Teachers express feeling unprepared to manage diverse learning needs and lack ongoing professional development opportunities (Vizer-Karni & Reiter, 2014). The research reveals significant correlations between positive attitudes toward inclusion and both pre-service training in special education and administrative support. Limited collaboration between general and special education teachers further constrains inclusive practice (Majadley, 2019). Arab teachers report minimal interaction with families of students with special needs, suggesting weak home-school partnerships that are essential for successful inclusion (Vizer-Karni & Reiter, 2014).

1.6. Theoretical Frameworks: Explaining the Gap Between Attitudes and Practice

The Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) and Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1997) offer complementary frameworks for understanding the psychological and contextual factors shaping teachers’ inclusive practices. According to these models, positive attitudes alone are insufficient for effective inclusion; teachers must also perceive themselves as capable (self-efficacy) and be supported by enabling institutional environments. Empirical studies support this view, particularly in under-resourced or culturally complex settings, where cognitive endorsement of inclusion often fails to translate into action (Majadley, 2019; Vizer-Karni & Reiter, 2014).

In Arab society in Israel, sociocultural norms and institutional limitations frequently dampen the emotional and behavioral components of inclusive teaching, creating a disconnect between beliefs and practice. In this context, demographic factors such as gender further influence dispositions toward inclusion. Research suggests that female teachers tend to express more positive attitudes, especially toward students with mild to moderate disabilities, possibly due to higher empathy and stronger perceived efficacy (Majadley, 2019). These patterns highlight the need to consider gender, culture, and school environment in developing effective professional learning frameworks.

Teacher self-efficacy, defined as the belief in one’s capacity to successfully teach students with disabilities, has been shown to play a critical role in shaping inclusive practice (Bandura, 1997). A recent meta-analysis found a robust positive correlation between teacher self-efficacy and inclusive attitudes (Yada et al., 2022). Key predictors of high self-efficacy include prior experience, targeted professional development, and access to collegial and administrative support (Novocký et al., 2024). However, recent scholarship warns that the TEIP (Teacher Efficacy for Inclusive Practice) scale may function differently across cultural contexts, emphasizing the importance of localized validation (Sahli Lozano et al., 2023; Selenius & Ginner Hau, 2024).

Importantly, emotional factors, such as anxiety, fear, and stereotype endorsement, have emerged as equally influential. Teachers who experience high emotional distress or harbor negative beliefs about disability tend to express lower support for inclusion (Forlin et al., 2009; Loreman, 2010; Avramidis & Kalyva, 2007). In Arab schools, stigma surrounding disability may exacerbate these affective barriers (Majadley, 2019). Evidence suggests that when professional development addresses both emotional readiness and pedagogical skill, teachers report reduced anxiety and increased openness to inclusive practices (Sharma et al., 2012). This underscores the need for professional education that explicitly incorporates affective dimensions alongside cognitive and behavioral content.

The main aim of this study is to examine how teachers’ attitudes, self-efficacy, and emotional concerns shape their preparedness for inclusive education within the Arab education system in Israel. To address this aim, the study focused on the following research questions: (1) What are the overall patterns of teachers’ attitudes, emotional concerns, and self-efficacy toward inclusive education? (2) How are these three constructs interrelated? (3) How do demographic and sociocultural variables (e.g., gender, religious affiliation, social group) influence teachers’ inclusion-related perceptions? (4) Do emotional concerns mediate the relationship between teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion and their self-efficacy for inclusive teaching?

2. Materials and Methods

All research procedures complied with international ethical standards for studies involving human participants. Approval was obtained from the Chief Scientist of the Ministry of Education and from the Institutional Ethics Committee of the Arab Academic College for Education in Haifa. Participation was voluntary and informed consent was secured from all respondents. This study was not preregistered, and no generative AI tools were used in the design, data collection, analysis, or interpretation.

2.1. Participants

The study sample consisted of 149 Arab elementary school teachers (grades 1–6) in Israel who completed an online survey. Participants were drawn from a range of geographic areas and represented diverse sociocultural subgroups within Arab society, including Muslim, Christian, Druze, and Bedouin communities.

The majority of participants were women (n = 124, 83.2%), consistent with the gender distribution typical of the elementary education workforce in Israel. Participants ranged in age from 21 to 63 years (M = 42.74, SD = 9.87).

In terms of religious affiliation, most identified as Muslim (81.9%), followed by Druze (10.7%) and Christian (7.4%). To better capture the intersection of religion and social identity, participants were also asked to indicate their sociocultural subgroup: 66.4% identified as Muslim (non-Bedouin), 15.4% as Bedouin, 10.7% as Druze, and 7.4% as Christian.

Over half of the participants (55.7%) reported prior experience working with students with disabilities, while 44.3% had no such experience. A majority (77.2%) indicated that their schools offered some form of professional development or training related to inclusive education.

Participants were also asked to rate how well their pre-service education prepared them for inclusive teaching. On a five-point Likert scale, the average perceived preparedness was moderate (M = 3.64, SD = 1.50), suggesting meaningful variation in teachers’ initial training experiences and highlighting the relevance of ongoing professional support.

Additional demographic and sociocultural characteristics of the participants are presented in

Table 1. Demographic and Sociocultural Background of the Participances.

Variable	Category	Count	Percentage
Marital Status	Single	17	11.4
	Married	122	81.9
	Widowed	5	3.4
	Divorced	5	3.4
Place of Residence	Village	112	75.2
	City	36	24.2
	Tribe	1	0.7
Person with Disability in Extended Family	Yes	54	36.2
	No	95	63.8
Person with Disability in Close Family	Yes	10	6.7
	No	139	93.3
Household Income Level	Below Average	11	7.4
	Average	76	51
	Above Average	57	38.3
	Well Above Average	5	3.4
Education Level	Bachelor’s Degree in Education	76	51
	Master’s Degree in Education	73	49
Teaching Experience	1–10 years	50	33.6
	11–20 years	40	26.8
	more than 20 years	59	39.6
Teaching Field	Humanities	99	66.4
	Sciences	50	33.6
School Type	Private	17	11.4
	Public	104	69.8
	Mixed	28	18.8
Number of Students per Class	Up to 25	69	46.3
	More than 25	80	53.7

.

2.2. Instruments

Three validated self-report questionnaires were used to assess key constructs related to teachers’ perceptions of inclusive education: attitudes, emotional concerns, and self-efficacy.

2.2.1. Attitudes Toward Inclusive Education Scale (ATIES)

Teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion were measured using the Attitudes Toward Inclusive Education Scale (Wilczenski, 1992), a 16-item instrument designed to assess agreement with inclusive practices across four student profiles: physical disabilities, academic difficulties, behavioral challenges, and social/communication difficulties. Each subscale consists of four items, and participants respond on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Higher scores indicate more favorable attitudes toward inclusion. The ATIES has demonstrated good internal consistency in previous research (Malinen et al., 2012) and in the current study (Cronbach’s α = 0.895).

2.2.2. Sentiments, Attitudes, and Concerns About Inclusive Education—Revised (SACIE-R)

Emotional responses and concerns about inclusion were assessed using the SACIE-R (Forlin et al., 2011), a 15-item scale developed to measure pre-service and in-service teachers’ affective dispositions toward inclusive education. The SACIE-R covers three interrelated constructs: (a) sentiments or comfort levels when engaging with individuals with disabilities, (b) general acceptance of students with diverse needs, and (c) concerns about implementing inclusive practices. Respondents rate their agreement on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (strongly disagree), with no neutral midpoint. For consistency in interpretation, five positively worded items (Items 3, 6, 8, 12, and 15) were reverse coded prior to analysis. The internal consistency of the SACIE-R in the current study was acceptable (Cronbach’s α = 0.731).

2.2.3. Teacher Efficacy for Inclusive Practices Scale (TEIP)

Teachers’ perceived self-efficacy for inclusive teaching was measured using the Teacher Efficacy for Inclusive Practices (TEIP) scale (Sharma et al., 2012). The TEIP consists of 18 items rated on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The scale comprises three subscales: efficacy in inclusive instruction, efficacy in collaboration, and efficacy in managing behavior. It is grounded in Bandura’s (1997) Social Cognitive Theory and has demonstrated high reliability and cross-cultural validity. In the present study, the TEIP exhibited excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.952).

2.3. Procedures

Participants completed an online survey distributed via school administrators, professional networks, and social media platforms targeting educators in Arab elementary schools. The survey included an informed consent form outlining the study’s purpose, procedures, voluntary nature, and confidentiality assurances. Respondents indicated their consent by proceeding to the questionnaire.

The survey included a brief demographic section followed by the three validated instruments (ATIES, SACIE-R, and TEIP). Participation was anonymous, and no identifying information was collected. Data collection occurred between January to May 2025.

To ensure accessibility and clarity, the survey underwent a pilot test with 16 Arab teachers not included in the final sample. Minor linguistic adjustments were made based on their feedback.

2.4. Analyses

Data were analyzed using SPSS (Version 29). Descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations, and frequency distributions, were calculated for all study variables. This included background demographic variables (e.g., gender, age, religion, social group affiliation, teaching experience, and previous exposure to students with disabilities), as well as three key inclusion-related constructs measured through validated scales: teacher attitudes (ATIES), emotional responses and concerns (SACIE-R), and self-efficacy for inclusive teaching (TEIP). Internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) was computed for each of the three scales.

To address the first research question, descriptive statistics were used to examine the general patterns of teachers’ attitudes, emotional responses, and self-efficacy toward inclusive education.

To address the second research question, Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to examine the relationships among the three core constructs: attitudes toward inclusion (ATIES), emotional concerns (SACIE-R), and self-efficacy for inclusive practices (TEIP). In addition, Pearson correlations were used to assess the relationships between each of the four ATIES subscales (attitudes toward students with physical, academic, behavioral, and social/communication disabilities) and both SACIE-R and TEIP.

To examine whether teachers’ perceptions of inclusive education differed by demographic and background variables, a series of statistical tests were conducted based on the characteristics of each variable. Specifically, teachers’ scores on the three main constructs, attitudes toward inclusion (ATIES), emotional responses and concerns (SACIE-R), and self-efficacy for inclusive practices (TEIP) were compared across levels of various demographic factors, including gender, age, marital status, religious affiliation, social group identity, place of residence, education level, teaching experience, school type, and prior exposure to students with disabilities.

Continuous variables (e.g., age, self-rated preparedness for inclusion) were analyzed using Pearson correlation coefficients with each of the three main scales. For dichotomous variables (e.g., gender, prior experience with students with disabilities, presence of disability in the family), independent samples t-tests were conducted. For categorical variables with more than two levels (e.g., religious affiliation, social group identity, socioeconomic status), one-way ANOVAs were used to compare mean scores across groups. When statistically significant effects were identified in the ANOVAs, Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc comparisons were performed to examine specific group differences.

To address the fourth research question, a mediation analysis was conducted to examine whether teachers’ emotional responses and concerns regarding inclusion (SACIE-R) mediated the relationship between their attitudes toward inclusion (ATIES) and their self-efficacy for inclusive teaching (TEIP). The analysis followed the classic mediation framework proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986) and was supplemented by bootstrapping procedures.

The mediation model tested the indirect effect of ATIES (predictor variable) on TEIP (outcome variable) through SACIE-R (mediator). Standardized regression coefficients were computed for each path, and the significance of the indirect effect was evaluated using 5000 bootstrap resamples to generate bias-corrected confidence intervals (95%). An indirect effect was considered statistically significant if the confidence interval did not include zero.

All variables were mean-centered prior to analysis, and assumptions of linearity, normality, and homoscedasticity were verified. Multicollinearity was assessed using variance inflation factor (VIF) diagnostics and was found to be within acceptable limits.

3. Results

3.1. Overall Patterns of Teachers’ Self-Efficacy, Attitudes, and Emotional Responses Toward Inclusive Education

Descriptive statistics were calculated for the three primary constructs related to inclusive education (

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for ATIES, SACIE-R and TEIP.

Scale	Mean	SD
ATIES (Total)	2.37	0.57
ATIES—Physical and sensory disabilities	2.14	0.70
ATIES—Academic difficulties	2.24	0.69
ATIES—Behavioral challenges	2.24	0.76
ATIES—Social/Communication disabilities	2.90	0.81
SACIE-R	2.43	0.43
TEIP	4.47	0.89

). The mean score for attitudes toward inclusion (ATIES) was 2.37 (SD = 0.57) on a 1–4 Likert scale. Further analysis by subscale revealed differences in attitudes depending on the type of student needs. The mean score for attitudes toward students with physical disabilities was 2.14 (SD = 0.70), followed by students with academic difficulties (M = 2.24, SD = 0.69) and those with behavioral challenges (M = 2.24, SD = 0.76). The most favorable attitudes were reported toward students with social or communicative difficulties, with a mean of 2.90 (SD = 0.81).

The emotional responses and concerns scale (SACIE-R) had a mean of 2.43 (SD = 0.43) on a 1–4 Likert scale.

The mean score for self-efficacy in inclusive teaching (TEIP) was 4.47 (SD = 0.89) on a 1–6 scale, reflecting relatively high confidence among teachers in their ability to implement inclusive practices.

3.2. The Relationships Among Teachers’ Attitudes, Emotional Responses, and Self-Efficacy Regarding Inclusive Education

Pearson correlation coefficients were used to explore the relationships among the three core constructs: attitudes toward inclusion (ATIES), emotional concerns (SACIE-R), and self-efficacy for inclusive practices (TEIP). The analysis revealed a negative correlation between ATIES and SACIE-R (r = −0.47, p < 0.001), indicating that more favorable attitudes toward inclusion were associated with fewer emotional concerns. A small but statistically significant positive correlation was found between ATIES and TEIP (r = 0.19, p < 0.05), suggesting a association between positive attitudes and higher self-efficacy. In addition, SACIE-R and TEIP were negatively correlated (r = −0.40, p < 0.001), showing that teachers with greater self-efficacy reported fewer emotional concerns about inclusion.

To further examine whether these patterns varied by type of student need, additional correlations were calculated between each ATIES subscale (physical, academic, behavioral, and social/communication disabilities) and the SACIE-R and TEIP scales. Attitudes toward students with physical disabilities showed the strongest negative correlation with SACIE-R (r = −0.49, p < 0.001), but not a significant positive correlation with TEIP (r = 0.15, p > 0.05). Significant negative correlations with SACIE-R were found for academic (r = −0.36, p < 0.001) and behavioral (r = −0.35, p < 0.001) difficulties, but neither was significantly associated with TEIP. Notably, attitudes toward social and communication challenges were the only subscale significantly correlated with both SACIE-R (r = −0.24, p < 0.001) and TEIP (r = 0.25, p < 0.001), suggesting that teachers may feel particularly confident in including students with these types of disabilities. These correlations are summarized in

Table 3. Pearson Correlation Coefficients Between Attitudes Toward Inclusion (ATIES), Emotional Concerns (SACIE-R), and Self-Efficacy (TEIP).

		r
ATIES	SACIE-R	−0.47 ***
ATIES	TEIP	0.19 *
SACIE-R	TEIP	−0.4 ***
ATIES (Physical)	SACIE-R	−0.49 ***
ATIES (Academic)	SACIE-R	−0.36 ***
ATIES (Behavioral)	SACIE-R	−0.35 ***
ATIES (Social/Communication)	SACIE-R	−0.24 ***

Note: p < 0.05 *, p < 0.001 ***.

.

3.3. Differences in Inclusion-Related Perceptions Based on Demographic and Sociocultural Variables

Pearson correlation analyses were conducted to examine the relationships between continuous background variables and the three inclusion-related constructs. Teachers’ age was not significantly associated with any of the outcomes. Specifically, the correlation between age and attitudes toward inclusion (ATIES) was not significant, r = −0.07, p = 0.392, nor was the correlation with emotional concerns (SACIE-R), r = −0.06, p = 0.442, or with self-efficacy for inclusive practices (TEIP), r = 0.02, p = 0.801.

In contrast, teachers’ self-rated preparedness through their formal training was significantly associated with emotional concerns. A significant negative correlation was found between training preparedness and SACIE-R scores, r = −0.28, p < 0.001, indicating that teachers who felt better prepared by their training reported fewer emotional concerns regarding inclusion. However, training preparedness was not significantly correlated with attitudes toward inclusion, r = 0.01, p = 0.891, or with self-efficacy for inclusive practices, r = 0.08, p = 0.335.

Independent samples t-tests were conducted to examine whether teachers’ perceptions of inclusion differed based on dichotomous background variables. No significant differences were found between male and female teachers in attitudes toward inclusion, t(147) = −0.86, p = 0.397; emotional concerns, t(147) = 0.87, p = 0.388; or self-efficacy for inclusive teaching, t(147) = 0.49, p = 0.630.

Similarly, teachers with prior experience working with students with disabilities did not significantly differ in their attitudes, t(147) = −0.43, p = 0.667, or self-efficacy, t(147) = 1.73, p = 0.085. However, a significant difference was found in emotional concerns: teachers with prior experience reported significantly lower SACIE-R scores than those without such experience, t(147) = −2.36, p = 0.020.

Regarding family exposure to disability, no significant differences were observed. Teachers with a person with disabilities in their extended family did not significantly differ in attitudes, t(147) = −0.49, p = 0.625; emotional concerns, t(147) = −1.49, p = 0.138; or self-efficacy, t(147) = −0.83, p = 0.407. Likewise, the presence of a child with disabilities in the close family was not associated with significant differences in attitudes, t(147) = −0.38, p = 0.711.

One-way ANOVAs were conducted to examine differences in teachers’ attitudes (ATIES), emotional concerns (SACIE-R), and self-efficacy (TEIP) based on religious affiliation and social group identity.

For religious affiliation (Christian, Muslim, Druze), there was no significant difference in attitudes toward inclusion, F(2, 146) = 1.54, p = 0.218. However, significant differences were found in emotional concerns, F(2, 146) = 3.50, p = 0.033, and in self-efficacy, F(2, 146) = 4.15, p = 0.018.

Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc comparisons revealed that Druze teachers (M = 2.19, SD = 0.37) reported significantly lower emotional concerns than Christian teachers (M = 2.59, SD = 0.42), with an adjusted p-value of 0.0428. No significant differences were observed between Christians and Muslims (M = 2.45, SD = 0.43; p = 0.5222), or between Muslims and Druze (p = 0.0602, marginal).

For TEIP scores, although the overall ANOVA was significant, none of the pairwise comparisons reached statistical significance after Bonferroni adjustment. For example, Muslim teachers (M = 4.39, SD = 0.91) did not significantly differ from Druze teachers (M = 5.06, SD = 0.59), p = 0.2476.

Regarding social group identity (non-Bedouin Muslim, Christian, Druze, Bedouin), attitudes toward inclusion did not significantly differ across groups, F(3, 145) = 1.02, p = 0.384. However, emotional concerns and self-efficacy showed significant variation. Emotional concerns yielded F(3, 145) = 2.86, p = 0.039, and self-efficacy yielded F(3, 145) = 2.85, p = 0.0396.

Bonferroni-adjusted comparisons indicated that Druze teachers (M = 2.19, SD = 0.37) reported significantly lower emotional concerns than Bedouin teachers (M = 2.55, SD = 0.36), with an adjusted p-value of 0.0475. All other pairwise comparisons between social groups were non-significant.

3.4. Mediation Model: Does SACIE-R Mediate the Relationship Between ATIES and TEIP?

A mediation analysis was conducted to examine whether teachers’ emotional responses and concerns regarding inclusion (SACIE-R) mediated the relationship between their attitudes toward inclusion (ATIES) and their self-efficacy for inclusive teaching (TEIP). The results showed that attitudes toward inclusion were significantly negatively associated with emotional concerns, β = −0.47, p < 0.001. In turn, emotional concerns were significantly negatively associated with self-efficacy, even when controlling for attitudes, β = −0.40, p < 0.001. The direct effect of attitudes on self-efficacy, controlling for emotional concerns, was not significant, β = 0.005, p = 0.954. The bootstrapped indirect effect was statistically significant, with an effect size of 0.186 and a 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.089 to 0.297. These results indicate that emotional concerns fully mediated the relationship between teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion and their self-efficacy to implement inclusive practices.

4. Discussion

The main aim of this study was to examine how teachers’ attitudes, self-efficacy, and emotional concerns shape their preparedness for inclusive education within the Arab education system in Israel. To address this aim, the study was guided by four research questions: (1) What are the overall patterns of teachers’ attitudes, emotional concerns, and self-efficacy toward inclusive education? (2) How are these three constructs interrelated? (3) How do demographic and sociocultural variables (e.g., gender, religious affiliation, social group) influence teachers’ inclusion-related perceptions? (4) Do emotional concerns mediate the relationship between teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion and their self-efficacy for inclusive teaching?

Teachers reported moderately positive attitudes toward inclusion overall, with notable variability depending on the type of student needs. The most favorable attitudes were toward students with social or communicative difficulties, whereas attitudes were less favorable toward students with physical or behavioral challenges. Despite these nuanced attitudes, self-efficacy scores were relatively high, suggesting that many teachers feel confident in implementing inclusive practices. Emotional concerns, however, remained a salient issue, with moderate levels reported across the sample.

This study offers new insights into the professional development needs of elementary school teachers in Arab society in Israel, particularly in the context of inclusive education. While previous research has emphasized the importance of teacher attitudes toward inclusion (De Boer et al., 2011; Savolainen et al., 2022), our findings reveal that emotional concerns, not attitudes alone, play a key role in shaping teachers’ self-efficacy. This mediation effect, consistent with studies on the affective dimensions of teaching (Forlin et al., 2009; Loreman, 2010), calls for professional development programs that explicitly address teachers’ psychological readiness (Sharma et al., 2012; Yada et al., 2022). By showing that emotional concerns fully mediate the link between attitudes and self-efficacy, this study adds to scholarship emphasizing that teachers’ confidence is shaped by emotional as well as cognitive variables (Miesera et al., 2019; Savolainen et al., 2022).

Teachers who reported higher levels of formal training or previous experience with students with disabilities demonstrated lower levels of emotional concern regarding inclusive education. This highlights the importance of both pre-service and in-service training programs that go beyond theoretical content and foster practical, emotionally supportive experiences. Structured opportunities to engage with diverse learners in authentic settings, such as through guided practicum or collaborative mentorship, enable teachers to develop not only pedagogical skills but also the emotional confidence to navigate inclusive classrooms (Fairbrother et al., 2025). These results align with prior research suggesting that familiarity with inclusive settings can reduce anxiety and strengthen teaching efficacy (Forlin et al., 2009; Sharma et al., 2012). Accordingly, professional learning programs should prioritize early and ongoing exposure to inclusive practices, with explicit attention to teachers’ affective development.

At the sociocultural level, our results point to meaningful differences in emotional concerns and self-efficacy across religious and social group affiliations. Druze teachers consistently reported lower emotional anxiety and, in some comparisons, higher self-efficacy than their Muslim or Bedouin peers. This may stem from the strong sense of mutual responsibility within the Druze community, where religious norms emphasize the obligation to support one another in all aspects of life. Such communal solidarity reinforces personal efficacy, nurtured by psychological resilience rooted in strong religious faith, which in turn shapes daily life among Druze teachers (Halabi et al., 2023). While these differences warrant cautious interpretation, they may reflect varying communal narratives around disability, exposure to inclusive discourse, or access to supportive networks. These patterns suggest that emotional and motivational dimensions are more sensitive to sociocultural context than cognitive endorsement of inclusive values. Consequently, localized, context-sensitive training models attuned to teachers’ social identities and belief systems are essential (Florian & Pantić, 2017). Teachers from historically marginalized or under-resourced communities may require tailored supports to address both systemic barriers and internalized apprehensions regarding inclusion.

To translate these insights into practice, teacher education in Arab schools should incorporate culturally responsive components that directly address both pedagogical and emotional preparedness. For example, practicum placements in local Arab schools with structured supervision can provide authentic exposure to diverse learners while building teachers’ confidence in real contexts. Training modules should also include strategies for engaging families and communities, where stigma and limited awareness of disability often shape parental collaboration. Furthermore, peer-mentorship and professional learning communities within Arab schools can create safe spaces for teachers to share challenges and develop resilience collectively. Finally, targeted workshops that integrate religious and cultural narratives supportive of inclusion may help reduce anxiety and strengthen teachers’ sense of efficacy by aligning inclusive practices with community values. These context-specific recommendations complement broader theoretical contributions, which extend beyond the Arab education system and inform international debates on teacher professionalism.

Beyond their theoretical contribution, the findings carry direct implications for teacher professional development and the broader agenda of strengthening professionalism in education systems. First, professional development cannot focus solely on knowledge and pedagogical techniques; it must also cultivate teachers’ emotional preparedness for inclusion. Second, programs should incorporate authentic experiential opportunities, such as practicum placements, guided mentoring, or collaborative engagement with diverse learners, that allow teachers to develop both skills and emotional confidence. Third, sustained professional support structures, including collegial networks and mentorship, are critical in reducing anxiety and fostering self-efficacy. Finally, teachers from minority or under-resourced communities require context-sensitive programs that recognize the role of sociocultural identity in shaping their professional growth, avoiding “one-size-fits-all” approaches. These implications highlight how professionalism in education must be conceptualized as encompassing cognitive, emotional, and contextual dimensions.

In international educational discourse, teacher professionalism is increasingly understood as comprising interrelated components of knowledge, skills, and a values-oriented ethos. However, values alone are insufficient; while teachers may endorse inclusive principles, these do not automatically translate into practice. Our findings, together with recent reviews, indicate that professional skills such as self-efficacy are shaped by emotional factors, implying that professionalism must also encompass emotional preparedness as a core element of professional identity (Ehlert et al., 2025; Savina et al., 2025). Moreover, contemporary models of teachers’ emotional competence underscore that effective professionalism requires cultivating emotional as well as cognitive or technical skills (Savina et al., 2025). Finally, culturally relevant pedagogical frameworks highlight that professionalism must integrate teachers’ cultural identities and local community values to be meaningful, particularly in minority and diverse contexts (Ladson-Billings, 2014). Taken together, these perspectives support reconceptualizing teacher professionalism as an interplay of cognitive, emotional, and contextual dimensions.

These findings suggest that effective inclusive education reform must go beyond universal training standards. Instead, it should incorporate differentiated, emotionally grounded approaches that consider teachers’ prior experiences, cultural backgrounds, and psychosocial needs. Without such attention to the emotional ecology of teaching, efforts to promote inclusive pedagogy may remain aspirational rather than actionable.

Limitations and Future Research

This study offers valuable insights into the emotional and cognitive dimensions of teachers’ readiness for inclusive education, yet several limitations must be acknowledged. First, the sample was drawn exclusively from elementary school teachers within Arab society in Israel, limiting the generalizability of the findings to other educational levels, regions, or cultural contexts. Second, the use of self-report questionnaires may be subject to social desirability bias, particularly in assessing attitudes toward inclusion. Third, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences and does not capture potential changes in teachers’ perceptions over time. Finally, although validated instruments were used, the study relied solely on quantitative methods, and future research could benefit from complementary qualitative approaches to capture the depth and complexity of teachers’ emotional experiences in inclusive settings.

Future research should examine longitudinal changes in teacher efficacy and affect, and explore how different types of training interventions impact emotional resilience. Comparative studies across diverse sociocultural contexts may deepen our understanding of how identity, community norms, and systemic structures shape inclusive readiness.

5. Conclusions

This study contributes to the growing body of literature emphasizing the interplay between emotional concerns and professional confidence in inclusive education. By demonstrating that emotional responses fully mediate the relationship between attitudes and self-efficacy, it highlights the critical role of affective dimensions in shaping inclusive teaching. Teachers’ perceptions are not merely shaped by knowledge or beliefs, but by their psychological readiness to engage with diverse learners. For inclusive education reform to succeed, professional learning initiatives must integrate cognitive, emotional, and contextual factors, ensuring that every teacher is not only informed, but empowered. Framing teacher professionalism through this multidimensional lens underscores the need for policies and training models that translate inclusive values into sustainable classroom practices.