Self-Regulation of Student Learning in a STEAM Project

Abstract

Self-regulated learning refers to the learner’s ability to regulate his or her behaviour, focusing on the acquisition of academic content, skill, or task. This concept includes aspects related to cognitive and emotional self-regulation. According to research studies, the aspect of STEAM education is a crucial determinant of academic success. Thus, in this type of education, attitudes towards science are also important, considering different aspects such as enjoyment, interest, usefulness, and self-efficacy and factors like age, educational stage, gender, family context, and self-concept. This study aims to analyse how Primary School students, who participated in a STEAM project, perceive their own learning process in aspects related to metacognition and self-efficacy, as well as their interest and enjoyment during the activities; furthermore, how the connections between these aspects are. In this project, 109 students between 9 and 11 years old from two different schools participated, using a questionnaire validated by experts. The results show that students show a high appreciation for STEAM work through this type of project as it enables problem-solving and critical thinking associated with the development of satisfaction and positive self-concept in doing it. These distinct aspects show significant correlations between them favoured by the designed STEAM project.

1. Introduction

STEAM education is spreading worldwide, thus promoting the acquisition of competences and self-regulated learning of science in connection with mathematics, engineering, technology, and the arts, thus promoting the acquisition of competences and self-regulated learning (a key element in the ability to learn).

The concept of self-regulation of learning is multidimensional and includes aspects related to cognitive self-regulation (or metacognition) and emotional self-regulation related to self-efficacy, positive attitudes, and motivation [1,2].

Martin [2] explains that metacognitive processes are the basis of self-regulation of learning because for it to occur optimally, it must be based on processes of evaluation of the understanding of the learning objectives; estimation of one’s own weaknesses and strengths in relation to the object of study; selection of strategies to solve the proposed problems, planning, execution, and monitoring of the plan; and re-reflection on the whole. And this value is associated with the primary students’ perception of the usefulness of the learning objective and their enjoyment or pleasure with the proposed activities, as well as their expectations of success, which depend closely on their self-efficacy in the proposed activity.

Thus, there is a significant positive correlation between the ability to self-regulate and the feeling of self-efficacy [3]. In fact, according to Dionne et al. [4], research indicates that self-efficacy is the most important motivational indicator for students’ participation in school science. Along these lines, students with higher metacognitive skills for learning tend to have higher self-confidence in achieving learning goals and, therefore, higher motivation to learn [1,2]. Thus, for example, they show a greater tendency to choose tasks with a certain difficulty but which allow them to increase their skills [5] and knowledge; they focus on the activity’s challenge, and they are indifferent to external opinions. They are not afraid of making mistakes because they see them as new learning opportunities, and they do not hesitate to ask for help, support, or advice when they need it [6]. Finally, they have a more favourable perception of their abilities and self-efficacy.

In this sense, this paper presents the results of the implementation of a STEAM project for Primary Education on Ancient Egypt, considering the contents of all the subjects involved (such as mathematics, physics, art and music, technology, and engineering) and analysing, on the one hand, how students perceive the development of their self-regulation skills in this STEAM project, and on the other hand, how are the relationships between the different aspects of self-regulation in their learning.

2. Context

If we refer to emotional self-regulation, when students are faced with a challenge, a problem, or a new situation, according to Martin [2], the subjective value they assign to it is decisive. Moreover, self-regulation is part of systemic competences, which refer to the integration of cognitive abilities, practical skills, and disposition towards the subject matter and is fostered throughout the teaching and learning process [7]. Self-Determination Theory [8,9,10,11] is a theory that argues that in order to understand human motivation, it is necessary to pay attention to some of the innate basic needs of subjects and to certain socio-cognitive constructs [12]. According to Deci et al. [9], the theory focuses on three fundamental aspects:

(1)

Competence: involves being effective and demonstrating the ability to conduct the actions necessary to master the environment and achieve certain outcomes, both external and internal.

(2)

Autonomy: reflects the desire of individuals to control and self-determine their own behaviour [12] and to be the source of their behaviour [13], which implies a continuous progression towards self-initiation and self-regulation of behaviour.

(3)

Belongingness: reflects the desire to be part of a community or a group to feel connected and to establish satisfying interactions in a particular social environment.

Based on the aforementioned theory, as indicated by Austin et al. [14], in order to understand academic performance, students’ beliefs that may influence their self-regulation must be taken into account because it is these thoughts that will control cognitive and affective behaviours.

This is where motivation comes into the picture, influencing these thoughts intimately and, at the same time, having a marked impact on them. Thus, according to the theory, learning occurs when learners have a clear source of motivation that regulates their cognitive development.

In summary, the Self-Determination Theory argues that feelings of competence and self-efficacy experienced during the activity only increase motivation when they are accompanied by a feeling of autonomy and self-determination [15], so that motivation that still centres on self-interest depends primarily on these two feelings.

In this way, the research of Ocaña, Quijano y Toribio [16] shows that when a person must make an effort to learn, a series of conditioning factors come into play that, through motivation, control the degree of effort he or she is willing to invest. One of these conditions refers to the knowledge and strategies of self-regulation of learning.

3. Self-Regulation of Learning as a Systemic Competence

In 2002, the European Union, with the Eurydice Project, noted that the curricula of compulsory education in the member countries include implicit and explicit references to the development of competences, and the proposed eight competence domains are:

• Communication in the mother language;
• Communication in a foreign language;
• Mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology;
• Digital competence;
• Learning to learn;
• Interpersonal and civic competences;
• Entrepreneurship;
• Cultural expression.

In addition, the development of these key competences must be supported by systemic competences, which include research skills, the ability to learn, the ability to adapt to new situations, creativity, understanding of other cultures, the ability to work autonomously, project design and management, initiative and entrepreneurship, concern for quality, and the will to succeed [7] (p. 54).

The STEAM project presented in this paper, “Machining in Ancient Egypt”, fosters the key competence (3) as dedicated to the development of scientific and mathematical concepts and skills in students whose content connects with technology. Therefore, these competences are not mutually exclusive and are interconnected.

Therefore, this study also analyses the effect of the implementation of the STEAM project on the acquisition of this systemic competence that deals with the ability to learn self-regulation (a key element in the ability to learn). Various studies have shown that students who spontaneously use self-explanation and reflection more frequently obtain better academic performance [17] and that those who self-evaluate their strategies and modify them when necessary are more effective in problem-solving [18]. Consequently, the recommendation is to educate students in the selection and evaluation of their learning strategies from an early age [19].

In addition, other studies have analysed which are the most appropriate practices to promote good self-regulation focused on better student performance. In this sense, it is found that the studies in [20] describe interventions that improved student self-regulation by combining training in self-regulation with the teaching of problem-solving, being especially effective in improving performance. In the case of [21], teachers who practised interactive and collaborative teaching strategies promoted deep cognitive processing in their students.

Therefore, we can establish these determining factors to favour good self-regulation and, consequently, an improvement in student performance in the STEAM project “Machining in Ancient Egypt”: problem-solving, self-assessment, metacognition, and collaborative learning.

Design of the STEAM Project “Machining in Ancient Egypt”

According to most authors, it is crucial for the further entrenchment, applicability, and effectiveness of STEAM that its key concepts and its own methodology are properly established, as well as effective modes of application [22]. As an example for Primary Education, we present the project approved in the call for R&D Projects for Young Researchers. 2019 (CM/JIN/2019-024) with the title: DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF STEAM ACTIVITIES.

This project has the following main lines of work associated with it:

• Creation of a methodological proposal for the development of STEAM projects based on the 5E constructivist teaching model [23] is extended and adapted for the STEAM competence framework (STEAM-5E). For this purpose, all the areas involved are worked on inter- and transdisciplinary, emphasizing the real inclusion of technology, engineering, arts, and humanities in pursuit of an integrated curriculum [24]. In addition, aspects of other methodologies are included, such as PBL (Project-Based Learning), Learning by Doing (LBD), and Mathematics of Singapore.
• Elaboration of a STEAM-5E intervention proposal coherent with the curricular learning standards of the STEAM areas for the fourth year of Primary Education.
• Implementation of the proposal as an educational pilot project in the fourth year of Primary Education in a CEIP (Pre-primary and Primary Education Centre).

One of the first objectives of this project was to analyse and study the different methodologies where the STEAM approach has been applied. The use of PBL (Project-Based Learning) was widespread, as well as IBL (Inquiry-Based Learning), Integrative STEM, the 5Es, and others, such as Design Thinking and Visual Thinking, which are widely used methods in engineering and visual arts, respectively.

Of the various methodologies included in the projects published under the STEAM scenario, we propose the 5E methodology of Bybee et al. [23], which includes scientific, mathematical, artistic, technological, and engineering activities, all connected by the theme of Egyptian civilization and culminated in a transdisciplinary project to build a temple. With this methodology, we want to provide an active role to children in the fourth year of Primary Education (9–11 years old) as they must think, imagine, decide, plan, anticipate, investigate, make connections with the environment, invent, document, and provide feedback to their peers, developing essential knowledge and skills to efficiently face the challenges imposed by today’s world [25]. Based on the above proposal [23], we propose to work in five phases (

Table 1. STEAM-5E model: structure, methodologies, and classroom organisation.

FASES	Learning	Methodology and Activities
ENGAGEMENT	Activities to create motivation for new concepts and to get children’s preconceptions.	Gymkhana
EXPLORATION	Enquiry and experimentation activities to work on previous ideas and allow children to become familiar with the phenomena under study. Predominantly manipulative activities.	Inquiry Directed enquiry
EXPLANATION	The teacher intervenes by introducing new concepts and deepening the previous phase. Children show their learning, make it explicit, and apply their knowledge.	Direct instruction
ELABORATION	Creation of a project that challenges the children’s knowledge and skills. They apply what they have learned to new learning situations.	PBL
EVALUATION	Children should be aware of their learning and the teacher should assess it.	Visual thinking Dialogue

).

This model proposed by Bybee et al. [23] has been already applied in the STEM approach by other projects (European project CREATIONS7). Once the 5E methodology had been selected, an attempt was made to adapt it to the STEAM approach for Primary School.

There is not much bibliography on this subject, and it is also a question of solving many of the problems raised, so it is proposed to work in the following way:

-

Guided and collaborative learning in the first two phases (engage and explore).

-

Intra- and interdisciplinary work from each subject, looking for connections in the explain phase.

-

In the elaborate phase, the aim is to work in a transdisciplinary way through a project that tries to achieve a final product.

Thus, the STEAM project, called “Machining in Ancient Egypt”, follows the 5E In-structional Model (Table 1) but also connects to the STEAM learning base. It consists of activities involving all STEAM areas, connected to the official Spanish curriculum, and with a total duration of more than 50 h. It works on mathematics content (fractions and decimals); works with simple machines in science; music, history, and culture of Ancient Egypt; and graphic thinking and programming of a score reader.

The study of self-regulation of learning related to its different aspects, such as motivation, attitudes, and metacognition, has been a fundamental axis in the design of this project. Throughout the project, the proposed interdisciplinary activities favour not only the identity of each discipline but also the specific processes of each one; at the same time, connections are sought between contents and procedures to find solutions to the challenges or problems proposed. Metacognition, motivation, and the development of self-efficacy have been encouraged from the design itself. The project ends with the creation of an Egyptian temple where students integrate the different knowledge acquired, proposing ideas and solutions through a transdisciplinary learning approach.

4. Materials and Methods

The design of this project has been based on subjects such as mathematics, experimental sciences, music, arts, and engineering and has been conducted thanks to the collaboration of three Primary Education teachers from two different schools. A total of 109 students (57 boys and 52 girls) participated in the study. The total number of participants belongs to three groups of 9–10-year-olds from a public school and two groups of 10–11-year-olds from a private school. Therefore, this study has a mixed and multi-method basis where researchers, students, and teachers participate and collaborate in its development [26]. Mixed methods in research are used to incorporate elements of qualitative research into quantitative studies in order to propose a more comprehensive solution to a problem. In addition, it is also considered multi-method because it uses a research strategy in which two or more procedures are used to investigate the same phenomenon or object of study through the different moments of the research process.

Instrument for Data Collection

To collect data on self-perception, self-regulation, metacognition, and emotions, a questionnaire (

Table 2. Questionnaire items, code, and content validity index.

Code	Item	CVI
A1	I was aware of what was clear and what was not	0.91
A2	I noticed the mistakes I made and tried to fix them	0.90
A3	I think I learn more by working this way than the usual way	0.85
A4	I found the project very attractive	0.84
A5	I had fun and enjoyed the proposed activities	0.85
A6	I have felt capable of carrying out the proposed tasks	0.88
A7	I believe that what I have learned will be useful to me in the future	1
A8	I have been able to make choices when doing the activities	0.81
A9	I felt guided by the teachers	0.92

) has been used, which is constructed with the aim of allowing Primary School students to assess their own self-regulation of learning from different dimensions, using simple, situational language adapted to their age.

The instruments aimed at obtaining a more quantitative measure of student studies have been designed in a Likert-type format (which simplifies the analysis of large amounts of data but implies a loss of information caused by the standardisation and predefined answers), with a closed scoring scale that establishes the degree of student agreement with a given statement. It consists of several statements in which the student must indicate his or her level of agreement with the proposed Likert scale (1 do not agree at all–4 strongly agree). This questionnaire (see Appendix A) has undergone a previous content validation carried out by external experts following the process proposed by Escobar y Cuervo [27], where the validity of the content of the questionnaire has been determined, establishing a validity index through expert judgement. A total of nine experts and researchers in the field of education from different countries participated.

The process followed for the selection of experts and the elaboration of the CVI (Content Validity Index) is as follows:

• The expert’s competence index (between 0 and 1) is determined through a self-assessment [28]. A value of 0.75 was established as an adequate value of the competence index to consider the experts suitable for the validation process. Out of nine experts who participated, three reached this minimum index.
• Revision of the proposed items: according to the review carried out by the former experts, some items related to self-efficacy were eliminated, such as “I believe that what I have learned will be useful to me in the future”.
• The Content Validity Index (CVI) of each item is determined from the evaluation of four criteria (clarity, sufficiency, relevance, and coherence) and has been set at 0.70 or higher. As shown in Table 2, the CVI is above 0.80 for each item, which implies a high level of agreement among the experts.

Reliability is determined by Cronbach’s alpha. In this study, its value is 0.86, which indicates high reliability, as values for this statistic are considered reliable at 0.80 and above. The statistical analysis includes descriptive statistics and non-parametric estimates, such as the Mann–Whitney U-test for significant differences, the biserial rank parameter for effect size, and Spearman’s Rho for correlation analysis.

5. Results

Table 3. Questionnaire designed. Percentage of responses on a Likert scale (1 minimum–4 maximum agreement). The median position is marked in bold.

	Self-Efficacy
	1	2	3	4
A1	3.6	13.7	42.2	40.3
A2	3.6	13.7	48.6	33.9
A3	3.6	8.2	37.6	50.4
A4	6.4	17.43	34.8	41.2
A5	5.5	8.2	37.6	48.6
A6	0.9	8.2	34.8	55.9
A7	2.7	5.5	24.7	66.9
A8	3.6	14.6	34.8	46.7
A9	6.4	9.1	40.3	44.0

shows the distribution of the results. The only significant difference found is in items A1 (I was aware of what was clear and what was not) and A7 (I believe that what I have learned will be useful to me in the future) with a medium effect size (0.25 and 0.26, respectively), but this is considered low-moderate, so it is not necessary to disaggregate by gender. As for the difference in the p-value between schools, we only found a difference in A4 (I found the project very attractive), with 0.22 in favour of the public school, but this difference is not considered significant, so we did not separate the data between schools.

There are no statistical differences by gender or school/age, so the results are not broken down. It is noteworthy that in all items, more than 75% are 3 and 4, and in almost all of them, the most selected answer is 4. This shows that the students perceive a high development of the metacognitive aspects during the project; they have also enjoyed the activities, and they have improved their feeling of self-efficacy towards the STEAM areas.

Table 4. Correlation between items A1 and A9. Notes: * p < 0.01; ** p < 0.001.

	A1	A2	A3	A4	A5	A6	A7	A8	A9
A1	-
A2	0.32 **	-
A3	0.41 **	0.30 *	-
A4	0.40 **	0.35 **	0.25 *	-
A5	0.46 **	0.33 **	0.34 **	0.33 **	-
A6	0.34 **	0.30 **	0.41 **	0.30 *	0.55 **	-
A7	0.38 **	0.28 *	0.35 **	0.42 **	0.64 **	0.55 **	-
A8	0.44 **	0.42 **	0.54 **	0.32 **	0.57 **	0.53 **	0.52 **	-
A9	0.36 **	0.37 **	0.37 **	0.29 *	0.47 **	0.42 **	0.41 **	0.45 **	-

shows the degree of correlation between the items. There is a positive and significant correlation between all of them. As for the relationships between the dimensions of self-regulation of learning, the correlation is higher between metacognition and self-efficacy or between positive attitudes and problem-solving.

It is evident that cognitive self-regulation is also strongly related to emotional self-regulation. The feeling of having learned in a different way, of having solved problems by themselves, and of having overcome a series of complex challenges correlates significantly with a positive self-perception of science and makes them feel very good about themselves.

At the end of the didactic intervention, some textual comments were collected from the students who participated in the implementation of the STEAM project. For this purpose, focus groups with a moderator were set up. In these interviews, the moderator raised the topics for discussion in order to verbally evaluate the project and their interest. The students’ comments reflected their ability to reflect on their own learning process and to regulate their emotions and cognitive strategies. These qualitative data are being analysed with ATLAS.ti 9. The teacher interviews have already been worked on as a case study in 2022 [29]. Some of these comments are collected here to reinforce the results we can see from the questionnaire.

Some students expressed initial difficulties in performing the activities associated with science (such as manipulating simple machines that they had to work on throughout the project: Machining in Ancient Egypt), such as assembling pulleys or understanding how a dynamometer works. However, as they progressed through the activities, they demonstrated greater self-efficacy in overcoming these obstacles through practice and persistence. For example, one student mentioned: “At first I had a hard time assembling the pulleys, but with practice I was able to do it correctly”.

In addition, students showed an increased awareness of their own thinking and learning processes. They commented on how they questioned their own ideas and tried to understand the concepts behind simple machines. One student said: “I realised that I had to think more about how machines work so that I could explain it better”.

In terms of emotional management, students acknowledged their feelings of frustration or overwhelm in certain activities but also mentioned strategies they used to regulate those emotions. For example, one student commented, “Even though I felt overwhelmed with the worksheets, I decided to take a break and then came back with a clearer mind.” [30].

In summary, the implementation of the project not only promoted the learning of concepts about science and mathematics but also facilitated the development of self-regulation skills in the students, allowing them to face challenges, reflect on their learning, and manage their emotions more effectively [30].

6. Discussion

The focus of science education in recent years has been on achieving science literacy, which involves helping students to understand the nature and role of STEAM subjects in the contemporary world and in their lives, encouraging them, as far as possible, to continue studying them, and to this end, science education should not only focus on students’ cognitive abilities but should also appeal to the components that affect them, such as the affective component [31].

The present study is a further contribution to support previous reports on the effectiveness of the STEAM framework for the development of self-regulated learning considering students’ perceptions. Several studies have shown that students who spontaneously use self-explanation and reflection perform better academically [17] and that those who self-assess their strategies and modify them when necessary are more effective problem solvers [18].

Furthermore, a significant correlation is found between the different aspects of this self-regulation and the feeling of being able to cope with tasks with a high scientific component. Stronger correlations are obtained between the feeling of having learned more and the possibility of making decisions during the activities, which highlights the open and inquisitive nature of the activities. Also noteworthy are the correlations between the items most related to motivational (enjoyment, choice) and attitudinal (usefulness, self-efficacy) aspects.

These results also support the idea that a positive attitude towards these types of tasks helps students to face problem-solving situations and develop critical thinking, feeling capable and motivated to do so [3]. Thus, it is supported that a STEAM project based on a variety of activities from different disciplines designed from their respective pedagogies helps connect them thanks to a common central theme, and concluding with a transdisciplinary project is a good alternative to work on STEAM disciplines in Primary Education.

In any case, the results obtained in this study, together with those reported in other research, show a hopeful outlook and invite us to think that a project designed on the basis of the STEAM approach is indeed an initiative with the capacity to increase the motivation of Primary School students towards STEAM subjects. However, these trends outlined here will have to be tested in further work using instruments whose reliability and discriminatory power are superior to the one used.