Are Creativity, L2 Motivation and Soft Skills Related? A Study in VET Students

Abstract

Vocational Education and Training (VET) studies aim to improve students’ skills to carve their niche in the labour market. Speaking different languages, showing teamwork skills and creativity are among the skills most in demand by employers. Thus, understanding students’ motivation and their perception of their teamwork skills and creativity level may help to identify their weaknesses and strengths and to develop educational programs adapted to the current demands. This research was conducted with 596 students of higher-level and intermediate Vocational Education who answered an online questionnaire in class. The answers were analysed to seek the link between the students’ motivation, their manifested teamwork skills, and their perceived level of creativity. The results confirmed the positive correlation between the three of them. However, and despite the positive results, further empirical research is needed, especially to understand how motivation, soft skills and creativity develop and what kind of initiatives have an impact on these variables.

1. Introduction

Vocational Education and Training (VET) has an important role to play in research, education and innovation. It can contribute to smart specialization strategies that lead to sustainable growth, innovation, job creation and social cohesion. VET has demonstrated its ability to incorporate innovation with the agility that the productive sectors need and with their support. Hence, vocational training is now of essential relevance as one of the engines of economic and social growth after this economic recession.

VET is assumed to cover only practical, hands-on subjects; however, it has expanded and diversified over the last few decades and now offers a huge range of choice in subjects related to a wide range of careers adapted to the current job market needs. For employers, the priority is to ensure that skills supply meets skills demand, so companies all over the world are investing in the resources to provide high-quality vocational training to their current and potential employees. The competencies that must be possessed by vocational graduates should be in line with the aims of vocational education, namely, to prepare mid-level skilled workers in accordance with the needs in the industry and to encourage innovation, creativity and entrepreneurship. Employers are now looking for candidates with transversal competencies such as adaptability, leadership, communication in different languages, teamwork skills and creativity which are understood as the basis of development and innovation [1,2]. Consequently, innovation is key for business [3] and candidates with a creative profile are increasingly sought after as it is linked to business success, entrepreneurship [4] and employability. An employee with creative ability is one who is able to foresee a difficulty, imagine new needs and come up with a solution when a problem appears. In relation to VET, Pedraza (2011) [5] points out that the potential for innovation and creativity are fundamental for personal growth and, hence, the need to promote creativity and innovation in education and training. Therefore, as creativity is an important aspect in selection processes, it should be included along with the rest of the transversal competencies within the training of students [6,7]. Data show that those countries with a more developed VET system, such as Germany or Switzerland, have much lower youth unemployment rates [8].

Creativity makes an impact on social and economic development. It brings changes to human processes and increase people’s ways of thinking, which eventually results in creative products [9,10]. There is no new product or process without creative thinking, and it is creative thinking that serves as incubating room for creative activities and new inventions [11]. Developing creativity and critical thinking will allow students to seek and implement the relevant solutions according to the different problems that they will have to face in the future. According to Mareque, de Prada-Creo and González-Sánchez (2019) [7], “creativity is essential to problem solving (Wynder, 2008), a precursor to innovation (Shalley and Gilson, 2004) as well as a core competence for entrepreneurship (Ahmetoglu et al., 2015; Biraglia and Kadile, 2017; Zampetakis et al., 2011)” (p. 95).

Furthermore, learning a second language implies not only learning its grammar and vocabulary but also getting involved in the L2 culture, and motivation plays a key role in the learning process [12,13,14]. Learners’ motivation varies depending on several individual (e.g., gender, age, level of studies) and external factors (e.g., learning environment, sociocultural context, and professional needs), and a large number of studies over the past couple of decades (e.g., [12,15,16,17] have confirmed a consistently strong relationship between motivation and L2 success. Additionally, intrinsic motivation is related to areas such as self-regulated learning, creativity or problem solving and facilitates individual engagement in a task to experience positive intellectual or physical sensations [18]. In 2019, Llamas, Storch de Gracia, Mazadiego, Pous and Alonso [19] analysed the development of creativity, teamwork and communicative skills in four groups of engineering students. The authors, based on previous literature, claim that creativity is the first step in the innovation process and has a relationship with well-being in the workplace and that, in many cases, innovative activities are related to the promotion of intrinsic motivation, since it allows workers to comply with their personal goals and feel fulfilled in their jobs.

Most researchers agree in considering teamwork competence as a multidimensional construct, although there is a lack of agreement on the conceptualization of the dimensions that compose it [20]. “The ability to collaborate with others is considered a key competence that, on the one hand, has very positive effects on the quality of learning and on the personal growth of students and, on the other hand, is essential to be able to act effectively in academic and professional contexts” [21] (p. 36). The development of this competency aims to enable students to join multi-disciplinary teams and involves considering a number of different but interconnected dimensions [20,21]. Several studies have identified a relationship between attitude towards teamwork and different student characteristics such as age, gender, creativity, motivation and academic performance, although the results have been mixed [22]. Among other things, it has been shown that students enter a spiral of demotivation after negative learning experiences and this demotivates them to continue studying and decreases their confidence [23]. However, other students overcome these negative experiences and their long-term motivation is not affected [24]. Numerous investigations have concluded that motivation is related to different factors such as curiosity, perseverance and learning outcomes [25]. Other experiments have shown that threats, punishments, and control over activities decrease intrinsic motivation and performance, while recognition of work and feelings tends to improve it [26].

One of the objectives of VET studies is to improve students’ employability by preparing them to join the workforce. Speaking different languages, showing teamwork skills or creativity are among the skills most in demand by the labour market; thus, understanding students’ motivation and their perception of their teamwork skills and creativity level may help to understand their needs and interests and to develop educational programs adapted to the current employment demands. Although some recent studies have analysed the relevance of creativity and soft skills in university students [5,6,7], few have been conducted at the VET level, and this is part of the originality of our study. Consequently, this paper addresses the study of two of the most highly demanded transversal competencies in the labour market, i.e., transversal competence of teamwork and the linguistic competence of foreign languages. Given their significance and with the aim of analysing the potential correlations, in this study these skills are linked to the type of motivation experienced by students during the learning of a foreign language, assuming that motivational orientation influences the different factors constituting the ability to work in a team. On the other hand, we also analyse VET students’ self-perceptions of their transversal competencies: their level of creativity, teamwork skills and motivation to learn English. Our findings are then presented, and the implications discussed before concluding with limitations and recommendations for future empirical studies.

2. Materials and Methods

This research was conducted with 596 students of Higher-level and Intermediate Vocational Education who answered an online questionnaire distributed by their teachers in class. The answers were collected and analysed to seek the link between the students’ motivation, the teamwork skills they manifest and their perception of their level of creativity.

2.1. Objective

This study aims to find evidence that supports the positive link between intrinsic motivation and teamwork skills, but at the same time, and considering creativity as the basis for innovation and the desire to overcome problems both personally and professionally, as well as to explore in depth the possible relationship between the three of them. Specifically, the main objective of our quantitative research is to analyse the type of motivation for learning English experienced by the students, determine the teamwork skills manifested by them and establish possible correlations with their perception of their level of creativity.

2.2. Research Hypothesis

According to the previous objectives, we define the following hypotheses to be tested:

(H1). 

Students with a higher perception of their creativity would also manifest greater motivation for learning English.

(H2). 

Students with a higher perception of their creativity level will show a higher level of teamwork skills.

(H3). 

There is a positive correlation between students’ motivational profiles, the teamwork skills they manifest and their level of creativity.

2.3. Participants

Our sample is made up of 596 students who are enrolled in private and public VET schools in Madrid (Spain). By educational levels, 353 out of the 596 participants study Higher-level Vocational Education and 243 participants study Intermediate Vocational Education. With regard to demographics, 312 are male and 284 are female and by age range, 181 participants are between 16 and 18 years old, 175 are between 19 and 20 years old and 240 participants are over 20 years old.

All the participants received a brief explanation of the research objective, participated voluntarily, and received information on the use of the information collected and the confidentiality of their data throughout the process.

2.4. Instruments

Three instruments combined into a single online questionnaire were used to test these hypotheses. The first is an ad hoc questionnaire with demographic and academic information and included a self-assessment of their perceived creativity. The second is the Teamwork Skills Questionnaire (TSQ) proposed and verified by O’Neil et al. (1999) [27], which has recently been validated in Spain by Portela Pino, Domínguez Alonso and Pino Juste (2021) [28]. All measures were coded so that high values indicate strong habits in terms of the skills a person should possess to be effective during teamwork and lower values the opposite. It has been operationalised with a five-point Likert scale in the continuous acceptance-rejection or agreement-disagreement (5 “always”, 4 “almost always”, 3 “often”, 2 “sometimes” and 1 “never”) as on the original scale [28]. The questionnaire includes six factors: (a) coordination, (b) decision-making, (c) leadership, (d) interpersonal skills, (e) adaptability and (f) communication [29].

And the third one is the Student Motivation Scale [18], translated into Spanish and validated by Núñez, Martín-Albo and Navarro (2005) [30]. It is a tool that stimulates the student to analyse and explore the reasons why they are taking the course answering the question: Why do I study a second language? The scale is composed of 28 items, with seven subscales of 4 items each that measure (a) the three types of intrinsic motivation (knowledge-oriented, achievement-oriented, and oriented to stimulating experiences), (b) the three types of extrinsic motivation (external regulation, introjected regulation and identified regulation) and (c) amotivation.

2.5. Procedure

To collect the data, two phases were followed. The first was to request collaboration from different Vocational Education and Training schools. In an email, we explained the research objectives and the stages of the study. Then, those schools that accepted the request received the link to the online questionnaire, additional information of the study and instructions on how to administer it to the students. The data were collected directly by the researcher from March 2019 to March 2020.

3. Results

3.1. Data Analysis: Descriptive and Inferential Analysis

We carried out a double analysis of the data collected using the statistical program SPSS vs.24. On the one hand, a descriptive analysis where we compiled, organized, and summarized the results by calculating the mean, deviation, Pearson correlation, etc., and, on the other hand, an inferential analysis with the intention of deducing characteristics of the population from the sample of the study.

3.2. Descriptive Analysis: Perceived Creativity

In relation to the level of perceived creativity, five levels were established ranging from “not at all creative” to “very creative”. The results (

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of Perceived Creativity.

Categories	Options	Frequencies	Percentages
Perception of own level of creativity	Not at all creative	5	0.8
	Uncreative	37	6.2
	Moderately creative	196	32.9
	Creative	254	42.6
	Very creative	104	17.4

) vary from 0.8% who say they are “not at all creative” to 42.6% who perceive themselves as “creative”. Most students perceive themselves as moderately creative (32.9%) or creative (42.6%) and only 17.4% perceive themselves as “very creative”. The lowest results are found in lower levels of creativity.

3.3. Descriptive Analysis of L2 Motivation

The second factor studied was L2 motivation. Considering the mean of each of the items that make up the factors analysed (

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of L2 Motivation.

Factors	Items	X	SD	Sk.	Kurt.	r	α
Knowledge-oriented motivation α = 0.88	2.—Because I feel pleasure and satisfaction when I learn new things.	3.54	1.12	−0.53	−0.17	0.65	0.94
	9.—For the pleasure of discovering new things.	3.75	1.13	−0.59	−0.34	0.73	0.94
	16.—For the pleasure I feel when I expand my knowledge on the topics that interest me.	3.65	1.13	−0.66	−0.06	0.72	0.94
	23.—Because the study of languages allows me to continue learning many things that interest me.	3.49	1.15	−0.78	0.04	0.74	0.94
Achievement-oriented motivation α = 0.89	6.—For the pleasure I feel when I excel in studies.	3.54	1.12	−0.48	−0.48	0.74	0.94
	13.—For the satisfaction I feel when I achieve one of my personal goals.	3.75	1.13	−0.66	−0.19	0.72	0.94
	20.—For the satisfaction I feel when I overcome difficult academic activities.	3.65	1.13	−0.57	−0.28	0.76	0.94
	27.—Because classes give me personal satisfaction when I try to get the most out of my studies.	3.49	1.15	−0.48	−0.44	0.73	0.94
Motivation oriented to stimulating experiences α = 0.80	4.—Because I really like to attend class.	3.17	1.18	−0.09	−0.75	0.60	0.94
	11.—Because for me, language learning is fun.	3.34	1.18	−0.21	−0.71	0.66	0.94
	18.—For the satisfaction I feel when I share and participate in interesting activities.	3.57	1.07	−0.48	−0.23	0.73	0.94
	25.—Because it stimulates me to read about the topics that interest me.	3.57	1.13	−0.59	−0.21	0.63	0.94
External regulation α = 0.86	1.—Because I need to know another language to access the labour market more easily.	4.16	1.06	−1.35	1.28	0.61	0.94
	8.—To get a more prestigious job.	3.87	1.10	−0.77	−0.14	0.65	0.94
	15.—Because I want to “live well” once I finish my studies.	3.92	1.08	−0.84	0.16	0.62	0.95
	22.—To be able to get, later, a better salary.	3.92	1.07	−0.88	−0.28	0.62	0.94
Introjected regulation α = 0.81	7.—To show me that I am able to speak a language.	3.68	1.11	−0.67	−0.16	0.75	0.94
	21.—To show me that I am an intelligent person.	3.34	1.24	−0.53	−0.59	0.55	0.94
	28.—Because I want to show myself that I can succeed in my studies.	3.45	1.24	−0.73	−0.08	0.71	0.94
	14.—Because when I do my homework well in class, I feel important.	3.75	1.15	−0.46	−0.65	0.70	0.94
Regulation identified α = 0.88	3.—Because I think that studying languages will help me prepare better for the profession I have chosen.	3.97	1.02	−0.83	0.22	0.62	0.94
	10.—Because it will allow me to access the labour market in the area that I like.	3.90	1.08	−0.76	−0.09	0.64	0.94
	17.—Because it will help me make a better decision regarding my professional orientation.	3.73	1.14	−0.73	−0.17	0.72	0.94
	24.—Because I think it will improve my job competence.	4.07	1.02	−0.45	−0.65	0.69	0.94
Amotivation α = 0.89	5.—I honestly don’t know, I think I’m wasting my time.	2.02	1.35	1.04	−0.27	0.15	0.95
	12.—Before I had good reasons to study languages, but now I wonder if it is worth continuing.	2.37	1.32	0.50	−0.98	0.15	0.95
	19.—I don’t know why I study languages and, honestly, I don’t care.	2.16	1.31	0.74	−0.75	0.16	0.95
	26.—I cannot understand why I have enrolled in this subject.	2.19	1.41	0.78	−0.78	0.20	0.95

Legend: X = mean; SD = standard deviation; Sk = skewness; Kurt. = kurtosis; r = correlation coefficient; α = Cronbach’s alpha.

), it is observed that the highest values are found in the subfactors related to extrinsic motivation as well as external and identified regulation and the lowest values in amotivation. Therefore, based on these results, we could establish that VET students’ objective in learning a foreign language is oriented towards personal satisfaction to seek external recognition and aimed at improving their employability.

This external regulation is linked to a more superficial learning based on the economy of time and effort and directed mainly towards instrumentality (increase employability), and not with the intrinsic motivation related to the pleasure of acquiring a language or to improve knowledge. Amotivation is the factor with the lowest scores, and this is positive since it implies that students do not consider themselves incapable of acquiring a foreign language or do not consider that it is worthless and, therefore, they will make the effort to learn it.

3.4. Descriptive Analysis of the Factors of the EME Scale

The means of the external regulation and identified regulation subscales are the highest and the mean of the demotivation subscale is the lowest together with the MI subscale to stimulating experiences (

Table 3. Descriptive statistics of the factors of the motivational scale.

Factors	Mean	DT	Skewness	Kurtosis
Knowledge-oriented M.	3.76	0.92	−0.75	0.43
Achievement-oriented M.	3.60	0.99	−0.56	−0.04
M. oriented to stimulating experiences	3.41	0.91	−0.38	−0.02
External regulation	3.96	0.91	−1.06	1.13
Introjected regulation	3.55	0.95	−0.69	0.32
Identified regulation	3.91	0.92	−0.98	0.90
Demotivation	2.18	1.19	−0.60	−0.51

). According to the rules of normality, we observe that in general all the items and factors comply with univariate normality since the values of skewness and kurtosis are below 2. External Regulation is the dimension with the highest value (X = 3.96), followed by Identified Motivation (X = 3.91) and My for Knowledge (X = 3.76). Therefore, it can be deduced that the subjects in the sample are not driven by the acquisition of knowledge in their English language learning; therefore, they do not set in motion cognitive processes such as exploration, inquiry, analysis, re-reflection. They do not show the reward, interest and satisfaction that the process of personal enrichment provokes. Likewise, demotivation is the lowest-rated factor (X = 2.18).

3.5. Descriptive Analysis of the Items of Teamwork Skills

Finally, the descriptive statistics of the teamwork skill scale are presented in

Table 4. Descriptive statistics of Teamwork Skills Factors.

Factor	Items	X	SD	As.	Kurt	r	α
ADAPTABILITY α = 0.85	I can easily identify potential problems.	3.54	0.99	−0.34	−0.36	0.62	0.96
	I contribute with solutions to solve problems.	3.80	0.99	−0.61	−0.07	0.67	0.96
	I adapt quickly to various situations and demands.	3.70	0.99	−0.48	−0.29	0.61	0.96
	I recognize conflicts.	3.73	1.01	−0.42	−0.50	0.66	0.96
	I identify needs or requirements and develop timely or quality solutions.	3.52	0.99	−0.41	−0.26	0.70	0.96
COORDINATION α = 0.80	I distribute tasks considering the skills of the team members.	3.38	1.20	−0.29	−0.85	0.51	0.96
	I make sure that the workload is correctly distributed.	3.58	1.11	−0.42	−0.57	0.62	0.96
	I do my organizational part punctually.	3.80	1.08	−0.50	−0.63	0.57	0.96
	I track the progress of other team members.	3.15	1.17	−0.14	−0.81	0.52	0.96
	I stress that the deadlines are met.	3.63	1.10	−0.42	−0.64	0.64	0.96
DECISION MAKING α = 0.84	I understand and contribute to defining the objectives.	3.56	1.02	−0.40	−0.46	0.60	0.96
	I know the process of making a decision.	3.54	1.03	−0.27	−0.56	0.62	0.96
	I know how to assess the relative importance of different issues.	3.42	1.05	−0.28	−0.57	0.65	0.96
	I prepare myself enough to make a decision.	3.55	1.05	−0.41	−0.48	0.63	0.96
	I solicit input from my team members to make decisions.	3.65	1.06	−0.42	−0.50	0.61	0.96
	I can change decisions based on new information.	3.69	1.03	−0.58	−0.16	0.60	0.96
INTERPERSONAL SKILLS α = 0.87	I interact cooperatively with other team members.	3.94	1.03	−0.70	−0.23	0.59	0.96
	I behave with courtesy.	4.03	1.01	−0.79	−0.03	0.66	0.96
	I respect the opinions and thoughts of all team members.	4.11	1.00	−1.00	0.38	0.71	0.96
	I treat others with courtesy.	4.06	1.04	−0.84	−0.59	0.73	0.96
	I accept individual differences between members.	3.73	1.06	−0.47	−0.50	0.59	0.96
	I treat all team members as equals.	4.14	1.07	−1.02	0.06	0.69	0.96
COMMUNICATION α = 0.86	I make sure that all the instructions are understood by all the team members before starting to do the tasks.	3.40	1.12	−0.12	−0.95	0.52	0.96
	I ask that instructions be clarified when it appears that not all team members understand the task.	3.66	1.15	−0.52	−0.61	0.58	0.96
	I communicate in such a way that we can all understand each other.	3.80	1.03	−0.53	−0.39	0.69	0.96
	I request and respond to suggestions.	3.66	1.02	−0.50	−0.35	0.68	0.96
	I listen carefully.	3.96	1.04	−0.74	−0.22	0.64	0.96
	Exchange information clearly and accurately.	3.66	1.00	−0.40	−0.47	0.70	0.96
	I pay attention to what others are saying.	3.96	1.03	−0.78	−0.02	0.62	0.96
LEADERSHIP α = 0.87	I exercise my leadership skills.	2.91	1.12	0.31	−0.73	0.55	0.96
	I teach other team members.	3.11	1.10	0.09	−0.87	0.52	0.96
	I serve as a model in informal and formal interactions.	2.99	1.11	0.09	−0.65	0.58	0.96
	I exercise leadership when appropriate, mobilizing the team for high performance.	3.33	1.17	−0.29	−0.74	0.64	0.96
	I lead the team efficiently.	3.27	1.09	−0.26	−0.59	0.67	0.96
	I show leadership skills to ensure the results of the team.	3.27	1.13	−0.25	−0.61	0.64	0.96
	I try to bring out the best in others.	3.71	1.04	−0.40	−0.54	0.68	0.96

Legend: X = media; SD = standard deviation; As = skewness; Kurt. = kurtosis; r = correlation coefficient; α = Cronbach’s alpha.

. Results show that all the standard deviations were higher than 0.98, indicating that all the items in the scale truly discriminate. The corrected item-total correlation is positive in all items, so they all contribute in the same direction to measure the theoretical reference construct and the scores follow a normal distribution (univariate skewness ranging between −0.14 and −0.95 and univariate kurtosis ranging between −0.03 and 1.42).

If we analyse the different sub-factors that make up the teamwork skill, we can observe that the highest scores are found in the items included in the interpersonal skills’ factor and the lowest in leadership one. According to TSQ, leadership implies the ability to lead and organize the team to facilitate final agreements at each stage of the task and to involve all the team members in the task. Well-exercised leadership is translated into a well-organized team aligned to a common goal and for the students in our research this is the most difficult part of teamworking. Moreover, the highest scores have been found in the items related to interpersonal skills. This competence includes the ability to interact actively with the team, provide positive feedback on the work of others and promote the participation of team members, in short, the ability to work cooperatively.

3.6. Descriptive Analysis of the Factors of the Teamwork Competence Skills Scale

The descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis) of the factors analysed in the present study are presented in

Table 5. Descriptive statistics of the teamwork competence factors.

Factors	Mean	DT	Skewness	Kurtosis
Adaptability	3.65	0.78	−0.57	0.27
Coordination	3.50	0.84	−0.48	−0.08
Decision making	3.56	0.77	−0.45	0.18
Interpersonal skills	3.99	0.80	−0.97	0.92
Communication	3.73	0.78	−0.68	0.32
Leadership	3.60	0.71	−0.63	0.64

. All the skewness and kurtosis indices are below the absolute values 2 and 7 respectively, which indicates univariate normality. If the symmetry values are observed, it is proved that the skewness is negative in each of the factors. Consequently, it can be stated that the distribution will have an asymmetric tail towards negative values. In the case of kurtosis, we find that all the dimensions are positive except coordination. Therefore, it is a relatively more flattened distribution, i.e., platykurtic, which represents a lower concentration of data around the mean.

3.7. Correlational Analysis

Table 6. Correlations of the EME scale.

Factors	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
Demotivation	1
MI. Knowledge	−0.06	1
MI. Achievement	0.02	0.80 **	1
MI. Experiences	0.14 **	0.81 **	0.78 **	1
External Regulation	−0.04	0.63 **	0.60 **	0.51 **	1
M Introjected	0.14 **	0.70 **	0.84 **	0.71 **	0.65 **	1
M Identified	−0.07	0.71 **	0.64 **	0.59 **	0.86 **	0.63 **	1

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (bilateral). Legend: MI. Knowledge = knowledge-oriented MI; MI. Achievement = achievement-oriented MI; MI. Experiences = MI. oriented to stimulating experiences **.

shows the correlations obtained between the different factors of the EME motivation scale. The six dimensions belonging to Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation present very acceptable correlation indexes among them with values ranging from 0.21 to 0.84 following a pattern of correlations, moderated and high and statistically significant at the 0.01 level.

Table 7. Correlational analysis between the dimensions of the TSQ scale.

Factors	1	2	3	4	5	6
Adaptability	1
Coordination	0.76 **	1
Decision making	0.83 **	0.82 **	1
Interpersonal skills	0.74 **	0.65 **	0.71 **	1
Communication	0.81 **	0.80 **	0.84 **	0.81 **	1
Leadership	0.90 **	0.90 **	0.93 **	0.82 **	0.93 **	1

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (bilateral).

presents the correlation matrix of the factors found, showing very acceptable correlation indexes in the four dimensions ranging from 0.65 to 0.92 following a pattern of moderate and high correlations and significant statistics at the 0.01 level.

3.8. Inferential Analysis

The perception of students’ creativity was analysed in relation to their motivation to learn English (see

Table 8. L2 Motivation based on the level of creativity perceived by the student.

	Perceived Creativity	X	SD	F	Sig.	Bonferroni
Amotivation	1. Not at all	2.15	1.39	2.31	0.05	No significant differences
	2. Little	2.06	1.20
	3. Rather	2.05	1.16
	4. Creative	2.03	1.12
	5. Very creative	2.08	1.35
MI Knowledge-oriented	1. Not at all	3.20	1.40	1.71	0.14	No significant differences
	2. Little	3.69	0.84
	3. Rather	3.83	0.95
	4. Creative	3.67	0.85
	5. Very creative	3.87	1.02
MI Achievement-oriented	1. Not at all	3.10	1.24	1.02	0.39	No significant differences
	2. Little	3.56	0.95
	3. Rather	3.66	0.99
	4. Creative	3.54	0.95
	5. Very creative	3.70	1.06
MI oriented to stimulating experiences	1. Not at all	3.00	1.27	2.85	0.02	4–5 = 0.02
	2. Little	3.26	0.82
	3. Rather	3.39	0.92
	4. Creative	3.34	0.84
	5. Very creative	3.66	1.02
ME External Regulation	1. Not at all	2.90	1.24	2.12	0.07	No significant differences
	2. Little	3.89	0.76
	3. Rather	4.03	0.91
	4. Creative	3.96	0.86
	5. Very creative	3.92	1.01
ME Introjected Regulation	1. Not at all	3.15	1.29	1.16	0.32	No significant differences
	2. Little	3.35	0.87
	3. Rather	3.60	0.91
	4. Creative	3.51	0.94
	5. Very creative	3.65	1.04
ME Identified Regulation	1. Not at all	2.80	1.17	2.09	0.04	1–3 = 0.04
	2. Little	3.91	0.93
	3. Rather	3.97	0.89
	4. Creative	3.89	0.88
	5. Very creative	3.91	1.03

Legend: X = mean; SD = standard deviation; F = Fisher; sig = significance.

). Students were asked to assess their level of creativity using a Likert scale from 1 to 5, where 1 was “not at all creative” and 5 was “very creative”. The results showed significant differences in motivation oriented to stimulating experiences between students who considered themselves very creative (5) and those who considered themselves creative (4). Significant differences in identified motivation were also found between students who considered themselves “not at all creative” (1) and those who considered themselves “moderately creative” (3). In all other factors, no significant differences were found, although students who considered themselves “not at all creative” scored higher in amotivation and students with a higher perception of their creativity also showed a greater intrinsic motivation.

Another of the variables analysed was the perception of creativity and its relationship with the different constructs of teamwork skills. Creativity is linked to innovation in the workplace and employability, as well as teamwork skills.

Table 9. Teamwork skills based on students’ perceived creativity.

	Perceived Creativity	X	SD	F	Sig.	Bonferroni
Adaptability	1. Not at all	3.00	1.31	6.85	0.00	3–4 = 0.00 3–5 = 0.00
	2. Little	3.48	0.81
	3. Rather	3.47	0.77
	4. Creative	3.77	0.73
	5. Very Creative	3.83	0.81
Coordination	1. Not at all	3.28	1.49	3.98	0.00	3–5 = 0.00
	2. Little	3.30	0.86
	3. Rather	3.37	0.78
	4. Creative	3.55	0.81
	5. Very Creative	3.72	0.92
Decision making	1. Not at all	3.16	1.50	5.42	0.00	3–4 = 0.00 3–5 = 0.00
	2. Little	3.36	0.76
	3. Rather	3.40	0.72
	4. Creative	3.65	0.75
	5. Very Creative	3.75	0.84
Interpersonal skills	1. Not at all	3.73	1.55	1.44	0.21	No differences
	2. Little	4.07	0.83
	3. Rather	3.89	0.80
	4. Creative	4.06	0.76
	5. Very Creative	4.02	0.84
Communication	1. Not at all	3.42	1.49	2.47	0.04	3–4 = 0.00 3–5 = 0.00
	2. Little	3.64	0.81
	3. Rather	3.60	0.74
	4. Creative	3.79	0.75
	5. Very Creative	3.83	0.84
Leadership	1. Not at all	3.20	1.36	5.48	0.00	3–4 = 0.00 3–5 = 0.00
	2. Little	3.46	0.74
	3. Rather	3.45	0.65
	4. Creative	3.68	0.67
	5. Very Creative	3.79	0.79

Legend: X = mean; SD = standard deviation; F = Fisher; sig = significance.

shows how students with a greater perception of their creativity also show a higher level of teamwork skills, so that a greater development of one is linked to the development of the other.

The results show significant differences in all constructs except in interpersonal skills. In adaptability, decision-making, communication, and leadership there are significant differences between students who consider their level of creativity moderate (3) and those who consider themselves creative (4) and between creative (4) and very creative (5). In coordination, the difference lies between creative (4) and very creative (5).

4. Discussion

4.1. Creativity and Motivation for Learning English in VET Students

(H1). 

Students with a greater perception of their creativity would also show greater motivation for learning English.

Creativity is the first step in the innovative process, and it is related to well-being in the workplace. At the same time, innovative activities foster intrinsic motivation, as it allows that workers to meet their goals and feel part of the process [19]. Although the relevance of creativity in motivation for language learning is a question that has not yet been studied in depth, some studies conducted among primary school students [31] have confirmed that promoting creativity in students improves their academic results and motivation for learning.

Our initial hypothesis was that students with a greater perception of their creativity would manifest greater intrinsic motivation. The results showed significant differences in motivation oriented to stimulating experiences and in identified motivation, so our hypothesis is confirmed at this point. All the other factors analysed did not show any significant difference, although students who considered themselves “not at all creative” scored higher in amotivation.

The ultimate goal of speaking a language is to communicate with others and communication is a process of constant creativity. Every time we interact, whether orally or in writing, we are deciphering or producing a new code, so the relationship between motivation and creativity is, in our opinion, quite evident. We believe that enhancing the creativity of our students in the classroom through interesting, dynamic, and proactive activities (e.g., role plays) can benefit both motivation and the development of creativity [32,33,34,35]. Nevertheless, further empirical research would be needed to prove whether in fact there is a relationship between the two in VET students and to develop and implement strategies in the classroom that promote these.

4.2. Creativity and Teamwork Skills in VET Students

(H2). 

Students with a greater perception of their creativity level will show a higher level of teamwork skills.

Education and political institutions agree on developing innovative potential and creativity as key factors for both personal development and economic growth of the countries. Creativity builds up the ability to generate new concepts, to come up with new situations and to identify opportunities for improvement. Additionally, nowadays nobody conceives that a single person could be responsible for the whole production process in a company or in any work task, so, to the best of our knowledge, creativity and teamwork go together.

The results of our study confirm the relationship between both concepts and reveal that students with a greater perception of their creativity also show a higher level of teamwork skills. This difference is significant in all the constructs analysed, except in interpersonal skills, so our hypothesis is confirmed.

Previous studies conducted in university students [19] on the development of creativity, teamwork skills, attitude towards work and communicative skills obtained similar results. For the authors, creativity is the first step in the innovation process and has a relationship with well-being in the workplace and the promotion of intrinsic motivation, since it allows workers to reach their objectives and goals.

For VET students, creativity, understood as the ability to find a solution to a problem or to anticipate a future need, seems to have a direct relationship with the different components of teamwork skill [36,37,38]. Those participants in the study who consider themselves more creative obtain higher scores in teamwork competence, which confirms our initial hypothesis and encourages us to continue promoting creativity in our students as an instrument that favours their personal growth and improves their adaptation to the labour market. From our point of view, policymakers, education authorities and educators are responsible for creating environments to improve the development and exchange of good practices that enhance creativity in students who will join the workforce in the near future.

4.3. L2 Motivation, Creativity and Teamwork Skills in VET Students

(H3). 

There is a positive correlation between students’ motivational profiles, creativity level and the type of teamwork skills they manifest.

Our hypothesis was based on the fact that there is a relationship between the motivation shown by the students and their perception of teamwork skills and creativity. It seems evident that students who have a more self-regulated motivation are more autonomous in their learning. This type of student would be able to plan and modify their learning objectives, to effectively manage the available resources, to anticipate a solution to a problem and to develop a greater competence of teamwork and its constructs (coordination, decision making, leadership, interpersonal skills, adaptability and communication).

The results of our study have shown that teamwork skills correlate positively and significantly with the subscales of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and correlate negatively and significantly with the amotivation subscale. At the same time, students with higher scores in teamwork skills have shown higher level of creativity and those with higher scores in intrinsic motivation have a higher perception of their level of creativity, confirming the relation among the three factors. Hence, our initial hypothesis, which presupposed a relationship between the three factors, is confirmed.

5. Conclusions

In recent years, it has been observed that Vocational Training has gone from being a viable itinerary for those students considered to have a non-academic profile for high school or university studies to becoming a path where vocation and professionalization combine to increase the quality of this option with high employment rates [28]. Therefore, it is of great interest to analyse the motivations that guide students towards learning as well as to know their competencies to work in teams with the purpose of designing intervention proposals in the future that will benefit them both in their academic life and in the work environment [39].

Motivation not only affects the acquisition of the linguistic elements of the language under study, but also influences perseverance in learning and the desire to communicate in that language. It is fundamental in the decision to start learning a foreign language, but it is even more important in maintaining such behaviour. The student must overcome various changes and obstacles before achieving positive learning outcomes and we must aspire to make the type of motivation of our students as intrinsic and self-regulated as possible so that they persist in the effort. In this context, Martinović (2018) [40] examined motivation for learning in English among Croatian university students based on the L2 self-regulation model (L2MSS). The results indicated that the length of time they had been studying English did not significantly affect students’ motivational disposition, however, students with better grades presented higher levels of L2 motivation. Al-Hoorie (2016) [41], on the other hand, compared the motivational profiles of L2 learners with different levels of academic achievement to find out which motivational variables could discriminate between high and low achievers. The results showed that implicit attitudes toward L2 speakers were positively correlated with L2 learning success and L2 I-should and, conversely, L1 group attachment was a negative predictor of L2 achievement. Similar results were obtained in a study among university students in China [42]. Zhang and Lin (2020) [43] proposed a person-centered approach to identify the motivational profiles of students enrolled in online language courses and to examine the relationship between student profile and learning outcomes, gender and motives for enrolling in the course. The results confirmed the positive effect of autonomous motivation on learning and gender differences, with a higher presence of females in the highest profile.

We have observed that the students’ teamwork skill varies depending on their own perception of their level of creativity and the significant differences in the various constructs of the skill. At the same time, we have found that for our students, leadership is the factor where they feel less prepared, while interpersonal skills are where they consider themselves best qualified. This information is important for educators and the education institutions responsible for shaping the VET curricula because it will help them to design programs that enhance the acquisition of the skills where students have identified a weakness.

The relationship between autonomy, creativity, motivation and L2 learning outcomes have also been explored by other researchers. For example, Alamer and Lee (2019) [44] developed a motivational process model to demonstrate the connection of basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence and affinity) with achievement in L2. Similarly, Cevallos Bravo et al. (2017) [45] proposed to study the role of motivation in a group of VET students, emphasizing the link between motivation and learning autonomy, since, according to them, learners’ autonomy “interlaces their motivation and language learning success” (p. 100). The results confirmed their hypotheses and also showed a significant relationship between teacher-generated L2 learning motivation and participants’ attitudes.

Regarding the implications of this study, the results of this research are of great interest for educational praxis and for curricular aspects such as the planning and organization of Vocational Training Centres based on the knowledge of their motivational style and the competencies for teamwork that they demonstrate. The starting point is the consideration that success in education is achieved when the school prepares for life and for working life by increasing the levels of motivation and performance. For this reason, the present work is significant for the improvement of VET, since it analyses two of the most-demanded transversal competencies in the labour market: the transversal competency in teamwork and the linguistic competency of foreign languages in VET students. In this sense, this work has implications that can be useful for various groups: For teachers, so that they can work more deeply in their subjects on those competencies that are most valued by their students and where they perceive that they need greater support. For educational institutions, so that they can become aware of the existing differences between what the work environment demands and what the educational environment offers, in order to reduce this difference and bring the two environments closer together. For students, so that they know which are the most demanded competencies by employers, becoming aware of the different factors that contribute to their development and being able to improve those in which they are lacking. It is clear that education is changing in response to new demands and, therefore, the role of teachers has to adapt to this new situation. Consequently, it is important that educators take an active role in analysing the implications of the learning process and introduce new methodologies that help students acquire the necessary skills to work in teams, develop creativity and motivation. Understanding how our students acquire knowledge is fundamental to activate the learning process, motivate them, favour innovative attitudes and a taste for group work by collaborating to achieve the proposed objectives [46]. Therefore, it emphasizes the need for teachers to promote the development of transversal competencies and the motivation of students to learn a foreign language by adapting the methodology and content to the needs of students and, consequently, contribute to their successful entry into the labour market.

As with any research process, this study has certain limitations that must be considered for the optimal interpretation of the results. In the first place, there may be a social desirability bias, since it is an opinion questionnaire, and its interpretation may be affected by personal conditions.

Another limitation is the selection of the sample that has been non-probabilistic but based on access to participants from the VET schools that agreed to participate. The sample has been taken only in the community of Madrid (Spain) and all the participants were studying in person. Therefore, it is proposed to extend the study to other autonomous communities and types of education (blended, distance) to verify if the results can be extrapolated.

A quantitative methodology is the only one applied in this study. Therefore, it would be convenient to carry out a mixed study including a qualitative methodology, through individual interviews with students, discussion groups, etc., to complement the results, and finally, the cross-sectional nature of the study only allows us to obtain correlational evidence that should be corroborated in future longitudinal research.

The results of our study have shown that there is a relationship between the perception of creativity, the teamwork skills manifested and the motivation of the students. Without creativity there is no progress in any aspect of life. Students and future workers must adapt quickly to new work realities and employers attach great importance to creativity and the capacity for innovation in the workplace. When someone comes up with an idea, its development and implementation generate a greater intrinsic motivation, so we consider that it should be an aspect to be promoted among students.

So far, the importance of creativity as a basis for innovation and development has not been considered from an educational point of view. These results lead us to encourage interest in including it in the curriculum and exploring ways to develop the creativity of VET students as a complementary tool that may facilitate employability.

6. Constraints and Considerations for Future Research

One aspect to consider is the bias of social desirability in some of the data provided by the participants, as this is an opinion questionnaire, and its interpretation may be affected by personal conditioning factors that were not taken into account. Another limitation can be the selection of the sample which was non-probabilistic; the sample was chosen according to the access we had to the students, and for this reason the sample was taken only in the Community of Madrid. The quantitative methodology is the only one applied in this study, so it would be convenient to carry out a mixed study including a qualitative methodology to support the results found. The cross-sectional nature of the study only allows us to obtain correlational evidence, but not causal inferences about the differences in motivation and competence for teamwork in the different independent variables at the VET stage. The explanations put forward in this paper should be corroborated in future longitudinal research.

Based on the present research, new questions and concerns open up to continue with the research work, contributing as far as possible to the optimisation of teaching in VET. This involves reflecting on the motivation of VET students and promoting skills so that they feel intrinsically motivated and acquire skills for teamwork for an adequate performance as students and in their future professional life. We can also suggest opening this study to other areas of knowledge and at other educational stages, as well as involving families and teachers in the completion of these self-reports. And, at a later stage, to promote the collaboration of educational institutions, policy makers and companies in the development of a curriculum that combines the needs and expectations of students and employers to improve the employability of future graduates. Some findings in the present study suggest that future research should study how dependent variables affect employability, since teamwork is considered a core aspect and a competitive advantage by increasing motivation at work. On the other hand, the responses obtained in relation to the perception of creativity make us consider the interest in deepening the creativity of VET students as a complementary tool that facilitates employability. Creativity is the basis of economic and business development. Employers look for employees who can detect problems and proposing solutions. Therefore, the study of creativity and its development in VET students should take an important place and is still an unexplored field. Finally, we would like to highlight the need for more diachronic studies that consider the dynamic factor of motivation and allow us to analyse how students’ motivation evolves and fluctuates. This analysis is of vital importance to be able to analyse whether the different initiatives implemented in the classroom, work placements, voluntary work, among others, have an influence on student motivation and the development of transversal competences.