Imagining and Reimagining the Future of Special and Inclusive Education
Abstract
:1. Imagining and Reimagining the Future of Special and Inclusive Education
The future of human affairs is not merely some set of variables to be predicted. The future is what is to be decided—within the limits, to be sure, of historical possibility. But this possibility is not fixed; in our time the limits seem very broad indeed.(p. 174)
2. Imagination in Education: Promise and Danger
In retrospect, postmodernism’s contention, most pointedly expressed in Michel Foucault’s work, that the institutionalization of ‘reason’ and ‘progress’ leads to enhanced domination rather than emancipation seems overtly cynical and empirically untenable.
3. Competing Visions of the Future
- A.
- Full Inclusion with no Special Education. This is imagination of a single public education system with no subunit, facilities, or resources known as special education and no grouping related to disability of any kind. Differentiated education is provided for students (perhaps with tiers of supports as deemed appropriate or judged to be needed by any student). Education is largely defined by a “universal curriculum”, and all students of the same age are included in a single place or classroom. All educational services are available to all students, and special placement is necessary for none. That is, no services or resources are reserved specifically for any subset of students, and placement is universally in classrooms serving all students regardless of any differences among them related to ability.
- B.
- Inclusive Education with Integral Special Education. This is imagination of a single public education system, but with a subunit or facilities and educational resources named special (or a proxy name for special). Some students receive special education, but most do not. Some students identified as exceptional are placed in typical classrooms with those not identified as exceptional, but some are not. Parents, teachers, and specialists use their judgment in determining what is most appropriate for the individual student regarding both instruction and placement, and a full continuum of alternative placement options is considered. A special unit of the public education system (i.e., special education or a proxy name) exists and is dedicated to the appropriate education of exceptional students, but not to the education of students who have not been identified as having special educational needs or disabilities. Grouping SWD is neither prohibited nor mandated; decisions regarding grouping are made on an individual basis.
4. Imagination, Prediction, and Differences in Difference
We must make our children (all our children) a priority instead of a campaign slogan. If we do so, we can imagine more informed, resourceful, accommodating general education classrooms. What we cannot imagine is that general classrooms will become capable of teaching all SWD. We cannot imagine this because we know it to be unrealistic and dangerously naïve. Many SWD need something different than general classroom instruction.
The child who can’t see, the child whose family has been displaced by war and don’t speak the school’s home language, the child who has difficulty with mobility, the child who doesn’t hear, the child whose behaviour is very different or difficult, the child who will be absent for periods of time because of chronic illness or is from an itinerant family, or the child who can’t communicate in the way that most other children do. This is an abbreviated list for all children.(p. 29)
The alternative to the “anti-classification” [e.g., Brown] approach to discrimination law is the “anti-subordination” [e.g., EAHCA] approach, which focuses on raising the social status of certain marginalized or oppressed groups and preventing the formulation of an underclass. In contrast to anti-classification, which forbids differential treatment, anti-subordination allows for positive differential treatment. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), for instance, takes an anti-subordination rather than an anti-classification approach. Under IDEA, children are held to have an equal right to a “free, appropriate public education”. In designing an appropriate education, school systems are not only allowed to consider certain differentiating information about the individual student, they are, in fact, mandated to consider that information for accommodation and planning purposes.(p. 245, italics in original)
- At what point, if any, does teaching become difficult enough that the nature of learning differences makes a difference in the nature of education and where it is best conducted?
- Could it be that the value and meaning of what we call inclusion depends on age, activity, purpose, and degree of separateness?
- Is teacher education not inclusive, or is it “segregated” from other programs in universities because it includes only particular university students who meet in particular classrooms?
- At what point and in what ways, if any, does the idea of inclusion in any group or activity become silly, bizarre, unhelpful, or even counterproductive or destructive?
- Why do people fail to address the issue of exceptions when they suggest that inclusion cannot be taken too far or be over-emphasized as a universal goal for all students?
5. Nature of the Problem of Educating All Children
Contingencies present further problems: (a) What are those exceptions? (b) How are those exceptions determined? (c) Who is empowered to make those exceptions? In short, contingency allows, indeed requires, further, difficult, arguable decisions. The Law may provide guidance in making those decisions (e.g., IDEA in the case of special education), but law is open to interpretation and subversion, and ethical interpretation and implementation are not guaranteed. Moreover, contingencies may be so narrowly drawn that they are tantamount to the absolute, and so restrictive that choices are essentially nonexistent.([22], pp. 6–7)
6. Administrative Structures and Special Education
6.1. An Illusion of Separateness
6.2. The Necessity of an Administrative Unit Dedicated to Special Education
To flourish, a program of education must enjoy visibility, status, budget, and personnel—those things that give it borders and identity. Without these, the program inevitably becomes increasingly derelict in both intent and accomplishment.(pp. 96–97)
And these resources [for educating teachers] must be made secure for the purposes intended. That is, they must be earmarked for and assigned to a unit with clear borders, a specified number of students with a common purpose, and a roster of largely full-time faculty requisite to the formal and informal socialization of these students into teaching. Put negatively, these resources must not go to the larger, multipurpose unit of which teacher education is a part; there they run the danger of being impounded by entrepreneurial program heads and faculty members.(p. 152)
First, the farther down in a university’s organizational structure teacher education finds itself, the less chance it has to obtain the conditions necessary to a healthy, dynamic existence. Second, the farther down in the hierarchy teacher education finds itself, the less likely it is that it will enjoy the tender loving care of those tenure-line faculty members universities strive so hard to recruit. Who, then, speaks for teacher education? Who speaks for those who would become teachers?(p. 277)
Much of this unmoored thinking comes out as intended—ranging from scary to wonderful—and I can see why many people are taken in either by these threats or by unrealistic suggestions. Only the imagination limits these assumptions: they range from fairly plausible to patently delusionary. This is a new scientific genre where heavy doses of wishful thinking are commingled with a few solid facts. All of these models should be seen mainly as heuristic exercises, as bases to thinking about options and approaches, never to be mistaken for prescient descriptions of our future. I wish this admonition would be as obvious, as trivial, and as superfluous as it seems!(p. 200)
6.3. Creating and Maintaining Administrative Structures
After a long period of struggle, special education has finally achieved the status of a normal part of public general education and been integrated into the fabric of our thinking about students’ special needs. It has done so only by recognizing the realities of which Goodlad speaks, and it will remain such only if it is successful in fending off the entrepreneurial interests and irresponsible attacks that threaten its hard-won position.(p. 98)
7. Pliability and Imagination in Educational Rights
8. Teacher Education
An important element of inclusive education involves ensuring that all teachers are prepared to teach all students… To complete this shift, education systems must design teacher education and professional learning opportunities that dispel entrenched views that some students are deficient, unable to learn or incapable.([73], p. 1)
- Is it acceptable or fair for SWD to be present in the classroom with nondisabled peers and a teacher who has not specialized or is not fluent in the procedures demanded by the disability?
- Are all teachers to be competent and fluent in all of the knowledge and skills required to educate students with the most severe and complex intellectual and developmental disabilities and/or emotional and behavioral disorders? Additionally, if this training is going to happen, how and when will it occur? How will the appropriateness and sufficiency of this training be determined?
- If specialized teaching and services are to be intermittently “pulled in” to the general classroom by an itinerant, is that enough to meet the educational needs of every SWD (i.e., are no exceptions to be made for SWD who may benefit from more or more consistent specialized teaching, including most or all of the school day)?
- Given that all teaching is to be done in the context of a general education classroom, it that always the best place for it to happen? Will practical and ethical constraints of providing all instruction in one place be considered? If so, how?
8.1. Co-Teaching
Contributing to the admittedly equivocal evidence base for co-teaching are factors such as the still-emerging understanding of this special education service delivery vehicle, inconsistencies in definitions and implementation, lack of professional preparation, and dilemmas related to situating co-teaching in a supportive, collaborative school culture.(p. 9)
8.2. Teaching Assistants
9. Imagining Special and Inclusive Education That Serves All Students with Disabilities: Basic Principles of Our View and Their Limitations
9.1. Implementing Best Practices from Inclusive Education
9.2. Continuum of Placement Options from Mainstream Classes through Special Schools
9.3. Effectively Including the Majority of Children in Mainstream Schools
9.4. Collaboration between Mainstream and Special Schools
9.5. Flexibility of Education in Most Appropriate Setting throughout Children’s Education
9.6. Organization for Providing Optimal Education for All Children with Disabilities
10. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Kauffman, J.M.; Anastasiou, D.; Hornby, G.; Lopes, J.; Burke, M.D.; Felder, M.; Ahrbeck, B.; Wiley, A. Imagining and Reimagining the Future of Special and Inclusive Education. Educ. Sci. 2022, 12, 903. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12120903
Kauffman JM, Anastasiou D, Hornby G, Lopes J, Burke MD, Felder M, Ahrbeck B, Wiley A. Imagining and Reimagining the Future of Special and Inclusive Education. Education Sciences. 2022; 12(12):903. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12120903
Chicago/Turabian StyleKauffman, James M., Dimitris Anastasiou, Garry Hornby, Joao Lopes, Mack D. Burke, Marion Felder, Bernd Ahrbeck, and Andrew Wiley. 2022. "Imagining and Reimagining the Future of Special and Inclusive Education" Education Sciences 12, no. 12: 903. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12120903