Applications of Commercial-Grade Electronic Components in Space Projects: A Review

Abstract

Electronic components play a fundamental role in critical missions, performing functions such as data processing, measurement of physical variables, data storage, communication, power generation and storage, and algorithm computation. However, their performance can be compromised in harsh environments like those encountered in aerospace applications, where components are exposed to extreme conditions including radiation, temperature variations, and vibrations. To ensure reliability, electronic components used in aerospace missions must comply with strict specifications, typically requiring space- or military-grade standards. These components are significantly more expensive than commercial alternatives and often involve long development and design times for custom platforms. The use of COTS (Commercial-Off-The-Shelf) components has emerged as a viable solution for aerospace applications where cost and development time are critical factors. This paper presents a state-of-the-art review of COTS components used in aerospace missions. After an extensive literature review and document screening process, the results indicate that COTS components are commonly employed in critical missions, representing 44% of the studies analyzed. Furthermore, approximately 81% of the reviewed projects focused on space applications, with validation performed in space (22%), ground (75%), and air (3%) environments. Among the systems validated for space missions, half used CubeSat-based payload structures, while the rest relied on other platforms. Most launches were conducted using spacecraft (96%), with the remainder using balloons.

1. Introduction

In the past, commercial Electrical, Electronic, and Electromechanical (EEE) components were generally avoided in space missions. The main reasons for this were that space systems, which are required to be extremely reliable, and that failures were not an option due to the high mission costs and the fact that subsequent repair is almost impossible [1]. However, in the last decade, the use of Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) components has become a key strategy that the space industry is adopting to meet the growing demand for space access and services [2].

COTS is a term for software or hardware that is commercially manufactured and available for sale, lease, or license to the public and requires little or no modification to meet specific user needs. Due to their rapid availability, low cost, and low risk, COTS products should be considered alternatives to space service developments [2]. Specifically, the study defines COTS as: “a component in which the designed configuration, performance, quality, and reliability specifications are exclusively defined by the manufacturer”. This includes design, materials, processes, assembly, and testing [3].

The use of COTS devices for critical applications has a long history. In 1994, William Perry’s directive as US Secretary of Defense officially initiated the use of COTS in military applications, which often must meet requirements like those for space applications. For many space applications, COTS are the only alternative options if cost and performance are key factors. Especially in terms of cost, space-grade devices are often 1000 times more expensive than COTS alternatives [1].

Due to the specific nature of the activity, equipment used for missions requires low failure rates, high reliability, and, consequently, approval in quality tests standardized by Military Standards (MIL-STD). That said, it is of great importance to choose an appropriate method for evaluating and selecting COTS (products and components) in order to mitigate the risks associated with the acquisition of equipment that does not meet the specific space specifications [4].

The integration of COTS parts into spacecraft architectures is beneficial in many ways, such as integrating modern technologies, reducing costs, improving reliability, accelerating payload deployment, and reducing supply chain constraints [3].

COTS are attractive because they can be produced quickly with minimal variability, supplied at a fraction of the cost, and perform as well as, if not better than, long-life space parts. The use of COTS offers additional advantages, such as the availability of current technologies, improved performance, reduced size and weight profiles, and accelerated production and deployment schedules [3].

The use of COTS components in space systems is a reality, as some commercial manufacturers have developed strict process controls driven by advanced technologies and the commercial market. Empirical evidence suggests that the success of COTS equipment procurement is related to practical methodologies for selecting and evaluating potential candidates. Thus, the use of off-the-shelf equipment, or COTS, in complex applications has become a prevalent practice [4].

Currently, space equipment manufacturing is using COTS components at a growing rate as the space industry expands and increases its demand for parts. To meet the demand for space-based services, the space industry is increasing the use of COTS to build space hardware. However, risk assessment is a critical point of study for the use of COTS, so it must be adapted to specific requirements and effective management. These risks can be analyzed by employing adapted systems engineering risk management processes to guide efforts. Thus, the essential key to success is to minimize the failure risk and improve mission reliability [1,3].

This paper presents a review of the state of the art in the use of COTS components in aerospace missions. A comprehensive investigation of aerospace applications based on COTS components has been carried out. A screening phase was conducted, and the most significant works were analyzed.

2. Materials and Methods

The review described in this document is based on a comprehensive systematic search of the scientific literature using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) checklist [5]. The search was conducted using major scientific databases and repositories, including IEEE Xplore, Elsevier (ScienceDirect), Nature Publishing Group, MDPI, and ResearchGate. The search covered studies published between January 1996 and August 2025, with a particular emphasis on publications from the last five years to reflect recent advances in the field of COTS.

The inclusion criteria for the study combined keywords related to commercially available components and their areas of application, including terms such as COTS, commercially available, aerospace systems, military applications, optical systems, simulation, and experimental validation. Boolean operators (AND, OR) were used to refine the search according to the specific syntax of each database.

Studies reporting on the use of off-the-shelf commercial components to implement customized or specialized functions in aerospace, military, or optical applications were considered eligible. Both experimental and simulation-based studies were included. Articles lacking sufficient technical details on system architecture, component characteristics, validation methodology, or experimental results were discarded. Studies in which COTS were used without a significant contribution to the target application were also excluded.

The study selection process followed the PRISMA framework, consisting of the stages of identification, selection, eligibility assessment, and inclusion. Following the initial identification of records, duplicate studies were removed. Titles and abstracts were screened to exclude articles that were clearly irrelevant. Subsequently, a full-text assessment was conducted to determine final eligibility based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. The complete selection process is summarized in the PRISMA flow diagram presented in Figure 1.

A total of 169 records were identified during the search process. After removing seven duplicate records, 162 studies were selected. Thirty-five articles were excluded during the eligibility phase due to the absence of validation procedures (simulation, experimentation, or implementation in a real application) or because the central focus of the study was not the use of COTS in the target application domains. Consequently, 127 studies were included in the final review.

Relevant data were extracted from each included study using a structured approach. The information extracted included the scope of application, the type of COTS components used, the system functionality, the validation methodology (simulation, experimental testing, or operational implementation), and the reported performance results. Data extraction was performed consistently across all studies to enable a comparative qualitative analysis.

Due to the diversity of the included studies, which were primarily engineering-oriented research based on experimentation and simulations, no formal standardized bias risk assessment tool was applied. However, the studies were qualitatively assessed based on the clarity of their validation methodology, the comprehensiveness of the technical reports, and the relevance to the intended scope of application.

Due to the qualitative and diverse nature of the information obtained, a quantitative meta-analysis was not performed. Instead, the results were synthesized narratively, focusing on identifying common design approaches, validation strategies, and performance trends associated with the use of COTS in specialized applications related to the aerospace industry.

3. Results

The paper review results are presented in this section, which include COTS components’ effects on aerospace applications, the main reported COTS implementation methods, and COTS applications.

3.1. COTS Effects on Aerospace Applications

Three main problems affecting electronic devices in aerospace applications are highlighted and should be considered in the design process of COTS-based systems.

3.1.1. Effects of Radiation

Electronic components are essential for the operation of spacecraft systems, but they are also vulnerable to damage from exposure to radiation in space. The effects of radiation on electronic components can range from minor alterations to permanent failures, which can lead to reduced performance and increased operational risk [6].

The interaction of radiation with devices in space can have various consequences. When high-energy particles and photons pass through the materials of a device, energy is transferred through ionizing and non-ionizing processes. Two main effects are produced: electron-hole pairs generation, called ionization, and atom displacement, called Displacement Damage (DD). When considering the time scale of radiation-induced effects, a distinction can be made between almost instantaneous deviations from nominal operation, known as Single-Event Effects (SEE), and gradual effects resulting from prolonged radiation exposure, known as Total Ionizing Dose (TID) effects [7].

The atom’s displacement in the material structure of electronic components in the DD effect is caused by high-energy particles, which can cause permanent structural damage. This, in turn, can result in a loss of performance or component failure [6].

Short-time (≈10⁻⁹ s) stochastic events occur in the SEE effect due to charge deposition induced by a single particle striking the sensitive area of a device. Such events are caused by high-energy particles, such as cosmic rays or solar particles, colliding with electronic components and causing temporary or permanent damage. The SEE events are classified based on the device operation effect, including Single-Event Upset or Soft Error (SEU), Single-Event Transient (SET), Single-Event Functional Interrupt (SEFI), Single-Event Latch-up (SEL), Single-Event Hard Error or Stuck Bit (SEHE), Single-Event Gate Rupture (SEGR), and Single-Event Burnout (SEB) [6,7].

TID is the accumulation of ionizing radiation that damages electronic components over time. It can cause changes in the electrical characteristics of electronic components, leading to performance degradation and an increased risk of failure [6].

On the other hand, SEUs can be the cause of incorrect data or system reboots, while SELs cause permanent damage to the component. SETs are short-duration electrical signals that can occur in electronic components when exposed to radiation. SETs can cause false signals, generate electromagnetic interference, or damage other system components [6].

It is important to consider these effects in the design and testing of spacecraft systems to ensure reliable and safe operation in the harsh space environment. It is crucial to implement mitigation strategies and use components that have been tested in radiation environments to ensure their robustness [6].

The radiological qualification of a complex space system composed of multiple commercial electronic components and modules is a non-standardized task that presents certain limitations, but also offers extensive possibilities. In [8], the authors provide an in-depth analysis of the characteristics of system-level test methodologies and explain how to use the data obtained through a mixed-field characterization. The concepts derived from the experience gained can be applied both to the preparation of system-level irradiation tests and to their practical application. Ref. [9] describes the test protocols, test methods, and analysis methods used to certify various electronic devices and assemblies, both Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) and non-commercial. In addition, they include a summary of the test results along with an analysis of some selected components. In [10], proton tests were conducted to detect severe failures in a wide selection of commercial components intended for the space environment. They observed a wide range of device responses, ranging from no effects to destructive effects.

Various standards and guidelines govern the design of electronic and electrical systems for space missions. In Europe, the standards of the European Cooperation for Space Standardization (ECSS) regulate the design, development, implementation, and verification of space systems and their components, including radiation effects and their mitigation in the Radiation Hardness Assurance (RHA) [6].

Furthermore, the most widely adopted standards for radiation testing of space EEE components used by major space agencies, such as NASA and ESA, are: the military standards (MIL STDs) of the U.S. Department of Defense, the specifications of the European Space Components Coordination (ESCC), and the standards of the Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC) [7].

3.1.2. Effects of Mechanical Loading

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are designed to perform specific sensor or actuator functions and are integrated systems manufactured on a micro scale [11]. MEMS refer to a wide variety of devices capable of detecting and/or actuating. These devices are characterized by their compactness and energy efficiency, which are exploited in countless fields of application in everyday life today. MEMS cannot function or be controlled on their own. They are part of numerous subsystems of a functioning device and perform different types of functions [12].

Reliability is the ability of a system or component to perform the required functions under the specified conditions and for the expected period. With the rapid growth of the MEMS market, reliability is becoming increasingly important. To meet reliability requirements and understand potential failures to reduce their risk, mitigate their effect, or detect them, a design for reliability with in-depth reliability testing and failure analysis is generally required. Therefore, besides the issue of accuracy and sensitivity in MEMS, the greatest concern lies in their reliability [12,13].

Although vacuum encapsulation technology effectively mitigates the impact of external factors on MEMS devices, excessive stress loads could cause gas leaks from the encapsulation, leading to increased atmospheric pressure, degradation of the quality factor, and ultimately structural failure. Severe vibrations, shocks, and thermal shocks can also cause fatigue, structural fracture, delamination, adhesion, stiffness degradation, traction instability, particle contamination, and other problems. In addition, device component failure can lead to detection data errors, system malfunctions, and increased maintenance costs, all of which would severely impact product applications. Therefore, improving the reliability of MEMS devices subjected to various complex environmental stresses is key to maintaining performance and extending product survival. Analytical modelling and numerical analysis are the primary methods for analyzing failure mechanisms [11].

Most sources, engineers, researchers, and institutional stakeholders rely on historical U.S. military standards in the absence of specific standards for MEMS in general. Space agencies have developed methodologies tailored to specific types of MEMS devices intended for space applications. Auchlin [12] presents a selection of the most commonly used standards. In the absence of suitable specific methods, MEMS are typically tested following guidelines applicable to microelectronic circuits, first with digital circuits and subsequently with analog and mixed-signal devices, whether in the military/aerospace or automotive sectors [12].

Today, reliability qualification tests for space applications are developed based on MIL, NASA, or ESA standards. Their objective is to ensure that a device operates nominally over a specified service life based on a single-parameter test. Although these serve as good references, they fail to accurately represent real operating conditions, in which various types of loads can simultaneously subject devices to stress [12].

The reliability and safety of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are evaluated using a multidisciplinary approach that includes compliance with functional safety standards, accelerated stress testing, continuous device health monitoring, and advanced failure analysis [13].

3.1.3. Effects of Extreme Temperatures

Due to the widespread use of MEMS devices, they are inevitably exposed to high temperatures of 85 °C or even 125 °C. Temperature also significantly influences the reliability of MEMS. At high temperatures, thermal stresses generated by different materials can cause deformation of the sensor package, which can lead to bias and scale factor instability. Failure modes mainly include fatigue, fracture, open circuit, and delamination [11].

Thermal shock on MEMS, especially those used in picosatellites for low Earth orbit (LEO), can be quite severe, on the order of 16 cycles from −80 °C to +100 °C per day, with potentially much more significant temperature variations depending on the orbit and mission (e.g., Mercury orbiter, Mars lander). Thermal shocks can cause bonding failures upon failure, cracks in chips, and delamination of layers in MEMS devices. The curvature of independent surfaces composed of more than one artificial material can also change, causing device failure [14].

The quality factor gradually degrades at high temperatures, and the non-linear variation in the natural frequency with temperature causes MEMS parameter drift and unstable performance. Thermal failure mechanisms mainly comprise thermal mismatch, thermal drift of the natural frequency, and degradation of the quality factor [11].

3.2. COTS Methods in Aerospace Applications

The use of COTS in aerospace applications leads to the application of methods to reduce the probability of failure and achieve more reliable missions. The following two approaches were found in the documents reviewed.

3.2.1. Hardware and Software Systems for Error Detection and Correction

A low-cost alternative for implementing fault-tolerant aerospace applications is the use of redundant COTS components [2,3,15] with error detection and correction techniques. Software-Implemented Hardware Fault Tolerance (SIHFT) techniques are viable for low-radiation environments. Better error detection than SIHFT can be achieved by computing arithmetic codes, but this causes significant slowdowns [16,17]. Another proposal is the implementation of Automatic Compiler Error Detection and Recovery (ACEDR) techniques, where data and instructions in Central Processing Unit (CPU) registers can be fully protected against bit changes caused by SEE faults [18]. An alternative is the implementation of redundant parallel architectures in pipelines, which allows the integration of more powerful and faster processors with lower power consumption and cost than those versions tailor-made for space missions. This design approach is described in [19] for Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) signal processing. With the advent of low-cost, high-volume Internet of Things (IoT) devices, automated machine condition monitoring has become more practical. Data-driven machine condition monitoring systems offer a new perspective on new methods of fault detection and recovery for large systems. In particular, the use of machine learning-based anomaly detection techniques is an important opportunity that has not yet been fully exploited. This will require the development of custom algorithms designed to meet the demands of space-based systems, as well as the use of specific hardware platforms for computation [20]. According to Reghenzani & Fornaciari, the measurement of hardware failure reliability in safety- or mission-critical systems has been based solely on the hardware failure rate, quantitatively ignoring any software effects. Therefore, in their article, Reghenzani & Fornaciari show how to obtain valid software reliability metrics and how this methodology significantly improves reliability estimation compared to estimation based solely on hardware. This analysis is the first step towards reconciling software and hardware reliability and allows the reliability introduced by hardware fault tolerance approaches implemented in software to be quantified [21].

3.2.2. Fault Tolerance Testing

During the component selection phase, it is essential to consider the type of aerospace mission to be carried out. The selected COTS components must pass a series of tests to ensure their reliability in the mission [4]. To ensure the reliability and safety of COTS components in space environments, it is essential to obtain and incorporate sufficient technological knowledge from different sources, such as previous uses, data sheets, modelling techniques, and manufacturer information [22].

In [23], temperature tests under low and high vacuum conditions are reported for COTS inertial measurement units and Raspberry Pi. A set of tests must be performed to determine the performance of the component in a radiation environment. Test 25100 Basic Specification defined by the European Space Components Coordination (ESCC) [24] should be considered for SEE [25], and ESCC 22900 for TID [26]. ESCC 23100 [27] provides complementary support for the evaluation and procurement process. In addition, the ESCC published some standards to guarantee space products, for example, the ESCC-Q-ST-60-13C standard “Commercial Electrical, Electronic and Electromechanical Components (EEE)” [28]. COTS components are evaluated using space radiation models for solar particles, galactic cosmic rays, and trapped protons and electrons in [29]. The basic damage effects studied in electronics include TIDs, DDs, and SEUs. Based on the results obtained, the authors conclude that the use of shielding material for small satellites is mandatory. In particular, an A1 shielding thickness of at least 1.5 nm can reduce the effects of radiation to acceptable levels for both maximum and minimum solar activity for missions of moderate duration. In [30], interesting results are presented from TID radiation tests for a COTS system consisting of a BrushLess Direct Current (BLDC) controller for a three-phase motor and a Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) controller for two systems. The qualification of optoelectronic and photonic devices for space applications is carried out by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Goddard Photonics Group [31]. In addition to testing space environmental parameters such as radiation, vacuum, vibration, and temperature, specialized testing of COTS optoelectronics and photonics for space is performed, e.g., COTS Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) for landing module autonomy, detectors for rover spectroscopy, and tunable lasers for orbital vehicle communications. Rabiei et al. [22] present a practical approach to evaluating the failure rate of COTS electronic parts, considering different sources of information. The COTS Reliability Expert System developed in this work uses Bayesian methods to incorporate several primary types of tests, namely manufacturer data, test data, expert opinion, underlying failure physics and circuit simulation models, and manufacturing process quality and credibility factors. The main objective and contribution of the work is to reduce the dependence on testing for reliability analysis and, at the same time, obtain a more accurate order of magnitude estimate of the failure rate of COTS through an efficient process [22]. A Failure Mode, Effects, and Criticality Analysis (FMECA) is presented by Budroweit and Patscheider [1]. This analysis is a tool designed to systematically identify potential failures in products and processes and evaluate their effects. FMECA lays the foundation for defining risk mitigation strategies. In space projects, it is mainly used to define fault-tolerant design, make recommendations for special tests, and establish operational constraints. The concept of Fault Detection, Isolation, and Recovery (FDIR) is an important cornerstone of fault-tolerant design in spacecraft. It is one of the key functionalities of on-board software and is primarily based on a fault hierarchy provided by FMECA that specifies at which level faults should be addressed [1]. Herbert et al. Ref. [3] developed a new Risk Management Framework (RMF) that can be used to determine whether candidate COTS parts are suitable for use in space hardware systems. In this research, they use a six-step process to collect the necessary data to effectively identify, analyze, evaluate, and address random and epistemic uncertainties. This process was used to evaluate the electrical performance and dimensional attributes of the cell compared to those advertised by the supplier. This research seeks to fill a gap in current space design standards and policies when it comes to considering the use of COTS in space hardware applications [3].

The NASA Engineering and Safety Centre (NESC) sponsored a technical assessment concerning the use of commercial Electrical, Electronic, and Electromechanical (EEE) parts in spaceflight systems at NASA centers. The purpose of this assessment was to gather current practices at each NASA center, best practices, lessons learned, and recommendations proposed by the centers on the use of COTS EEE parts and assemblies in critical Ground Support Equipment (GSE) to provide recommendations on the use of COTS [32].

3.3. COTS Applications

According to the articles reviewed, COTS applications found in the aerospace field can be classified into the following groups: military, aerospace missions, radar, fault detection, and high-reliability systems.

3.3.1. Military

Governments demand new technologies for their military inventories with reduced costs and shorter acquisition times. Typical acquisition processes require two to three years of development, testing, and evaluation to ensure performance, reliability, and supportability, while COTS systems offer near-instantaneous technology introduction and availability [33]. Empirical evidence suggests that successful COTS equipment acquisition is linked to practical methodologies for selecting and evaluating potential candidates [4].

Advances enable a future tactical space layer to provide secure, high-bandwidth, low-latency, near-real-time communications. Due to the nature of defense equipment, COTS must be carefully evaluated and selected to mitigate the risks associated with introducing products into the government’s arsenal that do not perform as intended or fail prematurely throughout their lifecycle [4].

The Low Earth Orbit (LEO) space strategy will expand the Army’s long-range detection capabilities and increase military satellite network and communications capacity using commercial space [34]. System reliability is the primary limitation and challenge; such systems must undergo reliability prediction testing, failure mode and effects analysis, system-level criticality analysis, failure reporting, corrective action development, and reliability verification [35].

Defense budgets for research, development, and innovation of new equipment have been reduced worldwide. One piece of equipment developed using COTS devices is the night vision monocular, supplied by the Brazilian Army, which allows soldiers to operate at night by amplifying residual ambient light [4].

3.3.2. Aerospace Systems

At the beginning of the space age, components for this type of mission were not available, so military parts were used. Over time, robust components have been developed specifically for aerospace missions. These components are not mass-produced and undergo an intensive qualification process, resulting in high design and manufacturing costs. Modern COTS processors provide maximum performance and energy efficiency, but their performance is susceptible to ionizing radiation in space [36]. One solution is to combine COTS and radiation-hardened devices in critical stages of data processing, COTS device monitoring and management, and fault-tolerant computing. COTS hardware and software solutions are combined to provide fault mitigation techniques and achieve reliable, scalable, high-performance computing systems in aerospace environments [37,38,39].

COTS have played various roles in aerospace missions, such as satellite components, System-on-Chip (SoC), propulsion system controllers, vision and power processing units, computer modules, planetary exploration, and resupplying the International Space Station (ISS) [11,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48]. COTS technology has been leveraged to reduce development costs and accelerate mission timelines. The Mars Science Laboratory mission (2012) included COTS components in the propulsion and parachute systems, ensuring a precise and safe landing on the Martian surface using a Doppler velocity sensor. On board the ISS, we can find autonomous COTS sensors that measure Water (H₂O), Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), and molecular Oxygen (O₂) levels in the station (2023). The Ingenuity helicopter (2021), which operates on the surface of Mars, is also equipped with two cameras and a Telecom Module (TCB) based on commercially available components [6]. Another relevant application is the use of COTS in the research and development of space vehicles to evaluate their performance. One example is NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Centre (GSFC) SPACECUBE flight program, designed to examine how COTS-based designs would perform under the rigors of space [3,49].

One of the most suitable COTS applications in aerospace systems is the design of small satellites, such as the Standardized Miniaturized Cube Satellite (CubeSat) platform. The CubeSat is a cube-shaped satellite with 10 cm edges and weighs approximately 1.33 kg. The most popular sizes for the CubeSat unit are 1U, 2U, 3U, and 6U. Miniaturized satellites, or CubeSats, are a fascinating field of modern space research due to their multiple possibilities and low design and deployment costs. The new paradigm of connected space offered by CubeSats enables many uses, such as space research, Earth remote sensing, and connectivity in rural areas. In addition, CubeSats offer an additional connectivity option to the ubiquitous Internet of Things (IoT) networks, resulting in a globally connected cyber-physical system [50,51,52,53,54,55]. Continuous improvements in CubeSat technologies, such as attitude control, propulsion, advanced communications, and scientific instrumentation, continue to increase their benefits, even within such strict volume and mass constraints. With these advances, power and energy demands have also increased, necessitating larger deployable solar panels, lower-power electronics, efficient energy storage systems, and even energy transfer/harvesting systems. The selection of a suitable energy storage system depends on the mission requirements in terms of power, energy, and service life. Therefore, ref. [56] provides an overview of the performance of the most modern lithium-ion batteries, as well as other advanced energy storage systems [56]. Colombo et al. Ref. [50] presents the work carried out with the e-Cube satellite, which consists of a 12-unit CubeSat flying in low Earth orbit to carry three payloads designed to address the mission’s scientific objectives. The scientific objectives of the e-Cube missions are to develop the technologies and methodologies necessary to increase the autonomy of spacecraft during collision avoidance maneuvers, to characterize untraceable space debris objects to update and improve the debris environmental model, and finally, to model the upper atmosphere and thermomechanical loads for more accurate re-entry prediction [50]. A review of the latest advances in the main types of Micro propulsion and CubeSats (MPCS2017) is presented in [51]. Ref. [54] describes a robust practical framework for CubeSat testing, based on FMECA, focused on missions with limited resources and time. The first successfully launched CubeSat was XI-V in 2003, composed mainly of low-cost COTS components and a radiation-effect fault redundancy system. The results, as well as the lessons learned from its long-duration mission, are described in [57]. The Electrical Power System (EPS) is a key component for the success of the CubeSat mission. In [58], an EPS validation method for COTS platforms based on the power budget of the mission specification is detailed and validated. Four different payloads are derived from design analysis and magnetic wave compensation studies and plasma environment data acquired in the Earth’s magnetosphere on the Foresail-2 mission [59]. Meanwhile, the work presented by Bouzoukis et al. Ref. [60] offers a comprehensive overview of the success of CubeSats and the missions they carry out.

3.3.3. Radar

Space-based radar observations have significantly influenced our current understanding of the Earth. CubeSats are a particular class of miniaturized satellites that are highly attractive for Earth science applications, the main reason being the combined characteristics of low cost, easy access to space, rapid advances in technologies and capabilities, and direct involvement of universities. The key to simplifying and miniaturizing radar subsystems, while still offering attractive science and applications, is the advancement of technological components, integrated instrument architecture, and mission design that exploits the capabilities offered by CubeSat platforms [54,55,57,58,61].

The spatial resolution of radar defines the minimum separation between measurements that the instrument is capable of discriminating and determines the amount of speckle introduced into the system. Speckle is a scattering phenomenon that occurs because the spatial resolution of the instrument is not sufficient to resolve individual scatterers. The higher the spatial resolution of the radar, the more objects on the ground can be discriminated [62]. Synthetic aperture radar techniques enable high resolution, which is why Jylhä et al. present an article analyzing a cost-effective and accessible means of obtaining synthetic aperture radar images. In addition, they present a short-range, high-resolution experiment using commercial hardware components [63].

Multiprocessing is necessary to meet the typical specifications of radar/sonar systems, such as real-time processing, high data input/output speed, and the execution of computationally intensive algorithms. Parallel data processing based on simultaneous computing processors is possible using open, heterogeneous, COTS-based multicomputer systems. These systems, together with available software infrastructures, offer significant functional advantages and a reduction in total system cost [19].

Ref. [61] reviews the current state of the art and future developments in CubeSat radar missions for Earth remote sensing and the implications for NASA’s current and future Earth Science program. Key Radio Frequency (RF), digital, and antenna technologies are studied, as well as the evolution of CubeSat avionics, in the aspects that most affect radar development, namely power, volume, and attitude control, and Precision Orbit Determination and Knowledge (POD). It also investigates several radar applications that could benefit from low-cost CubeSat platforms, such as altimetry, sounding, precipitation profiling, scatterometry, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), and interferometric SAR (InSAR) [61]. Space radars are essential for monitoring and predicting the Earth’s environment, for example, in relation to natural hazards, adverse weather conditions, snow and ice cover, soil moisture, vegetation cover, surface deformation, ocean circulation and winds, etc. Bergamasco et al. propose a multi-purpose space radar system that offers efficient SAR, altimetry, and scatterometry in a swarm of CubeSats, called Radar Cluster for Earth Remote Sensing (RaCERS). The concept envisages a constellation of eight small satellites performing a combination of monostatic and bistatic radar functions, built around a small Radar Module for Earth Observation (ROMEO) engine [64]. Gatza and colleagues, on the other hand, present a proposal consisting of a 6U CubeSat with an Earth observation radar payload and a secondary imaging payload. The use of space-based radar systems will make it possible to examine agricultural areas in the Midwest or the properties of ice sheets in polar regions. In both cases, a polar orbit synchronized with the Sun would provide the most consistent radar readings from one day to the next [65].

3.3.4. Error Detection

COTS products are increasingly being used in high-security systems and networks, both for hardware and software. The use of COTS in security-relevant areas poses numerous risks. The continuous proliferation of attack tools and the numerous vulnerabilities opened up by the use of COTS products can easily jeopardize current and, above all, future military missions. Several organizational aspects must be considered when dealing with COTS in high-security environments. Appropriate countermeasures must be taken to overcome these dangers, e.g., statistical analysis of network communication, adequate protection, and examination of COTS that can be used for their own information operations in cyberspace. Therefore, vulnerabilities in one’s own systems must be identified and closed, and weaknesses must be known to maintain superiority in information operations and to be able to defend against countermeasures [66]. Systems based on COTS devices have been implemented in encryption schemes and hardware configurations for the protection of data and software stored in memory on board spacecraft operating in LEO [67]. The success and operability of COST systems can be enhanced by applying simple risk mitigation techniques to identify critical electronic components of the system in an SEE environment, even when using devices not specifically manufactured for aerospace missions [68]. Therefore, there is growing interest in reinforcing existing COTS systems using software-based techniques. This approach requires a methodology to evaluate the effectiveness of different software strategies [69]. In addition, board-level testing procedures are carried out, focusing mainly on the verification of functional requirements and component-level testing for characterization measurements [70]. The use of machine learning techniques is an alternative implementation method, which includes image processing and anomaly detection. In [20], machine learning error detection and prediction algorithms are analyzed, as well as several COTS multi-core microprocessors. Matrix multiplication is the central operation in machine learning and computer vision applications, which is considered a critical part of application computation. In this regard, ref. [71] investigates a fault-tolerant algorithm to mitigate silent data errors in machine learning and computer vision under neutron radiation. Another way to analyze the vulnerability of critical electronic components to event disturbances is through extensive fault injection campaigns [72]. Components are also subjected to different TID testing strategies [73,74,75]. A disadvantage of COTS devices is that radiation classification is often seriously compromised. Samples with the same component identification may have significantly different radiation hardness characteristics. The authors of [76] aimed to provide the industry with an open white paper showing the data and failure modes of gyroscopes and Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs). This provided valuable and transparent information observed and available to communities using these devices for flight applications. Device-based designs were characterized before radiation, then exposed to radiation until failure, and finally repaired and re-characterized to understand the impact of radiation exposure. Considering reliability, maintainability, and availability as analysis parameters, the challenge is that less information is available to evaluate COTS components than for custom components.

3.3.5. High-Reliability Systems

Critical or high-reliability systems require zero tolerance for failure. The use of COTS in such systems continues to pose significant unresolved problems. However, COTS components can be integrated into embedded systems in accordance with a broader procedure. Components must be reliable, maintainable, and available to inter-operate within the larger overall system [77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84]. The challenge of maintaining the development and implementation of reliable and efficient real-time control systems that are also low-cost and low-power is becoming increasingly difficult. This is because system designers and developers are faced with reliability, inflexibility, and often high cost of specialized or custom hardware and software components. Developers would prefer to use primarily general-purpose, reconfigurable, and reprogrammable hardware and software components to reduce costs, speed up the development process, and make the final product more versatile, such as COTS components [85].

The use of Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) components in high-reliability aerospace, military, and radar systems requires specialized, modernized testing and modeling approaches to mitigate risks associated with their non-hardened nature. While traditional methods focused on physical failure, 2026-era approaches emphasize “resilience engineering” and “uncertainty control,” addressing the unpredictable “unknown unknowns” of modern complex software-intensive and autonomous systems [86,87].

Modern Methods and Innovative Approaches for COTS in Aerospace.

• Physics of Failure (PoF) Analysis: To improve the accuracy of aging-related failure rates, PoF is now commonly applied, which involves digital modeling of the target system while incorporating real-time operating environment parameters.
• Model-Based Engineering (MBE): Tools like Maintenance Aware Design environment (MADe) are utilized to simulate the reliability of COTS components within systems, allowing for on-demand generation of FMEA (Failure Mode and Effects Analysis) and FMECA reports, as discussed in.
• Radiation Hardening by Design (RHBD): Rather than relying solely on hardening, modern techniques focus on architectural mitigation, such as using field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) to detect and correct transient faults caused by radiation.
• Predictive Maintenance & Digital Twins: Using artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) to process data from embedded sensors allows for the prediction of remaining useful life, reducing the risk of failure [88,89,90,91,92].
• Testing Recommendations for Commercial Components.
• Parts-Level Qualification: NASA highlights that card-level, box-level, or system-level testing is insufficient; rigorous, accelerated parts-level screening under voltage, current, and temperature stress is necessary before integration.
• Environmental Stress Screening (ESS): COTS parts often have narrower temperature ratings (0 °C to 70 °C) compared to military-grade (−55 °C to 125 °C), necessitating detailed “uprating” procedures.
• Radiation Testing: Characterizing radiation hardness is critical for space applications.
• Supply Chain Verification: Given the higher risk of counterfeiting, stringent verification and validation processes are required for COTS [93,94,95,96,97].
• Application Recommendations for High-Reliability Systems.
• Suitability Assessment: COTS is most suitable when offering advanced technology not available in the traditional high-reliability portfolio.
• Mitigation Strategies: For high-criticality systems, designers should use up-screened COTS or fault-tolerant architectural designs, while rad-hard components are still suggested for long-duration missions.
• Modular Systems: The defense industry is moving toward “modular open systems approaches” to allow for easier replacement and upgrades of commercial components, as seen in.
• Data-Driven Maintenance: Adopting a “W-model” framework instead of the traditional V-model allows for continuous reliability growth throughout the operational life of the aerospace component [87,98,99,100].

4. Discussion

According to the reviewed works, the use of COTS components in aerospace applications is reported in different areas, which can be classified into the following groups: software, data storage, batteries, a combination of hardware and software techniques, electronic devices and sensors, and data processing units. Some of the works within these groups are briefly described below:

• Software: Error detection using machine learning and forecasting algorithms used in the space sector is included in the COTS software group [20]. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is also considered to be particularly focused on the use of Deep Neural Networks (DNN) on board a spacecraft [44]. Advances in space technology have enabled the miniaturisation of systems and cost reduction. NASA has conducted extensive research on neuromorphic computing as an innovative approach to on-board computing [101]. The software-based self-assessment technique proposed in [102] is another COTS software solution, which is being adopted within the Experimental CubeSat-type platform for technology testing Massively extended Modular Monitoring for Upper Stages (MaMMoTH-Up) project.
• Data storage: COTS-based storage devices include Dynamic random-access memory with a stacked three-dimensional architecture (3D DRAM) system with higher memory capacities [103,104], Micro Secure Digital (Micro-SD) and Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) with a wide range of radiation protection grades [105,106].
• Batteries: Ref. [107] proposes a type of lithium-ion battery based on COTS cells for small spacecraft on a LEO mission, and ref. [108] describes how the range of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries (ABSL) has identified multiple new cells for use in specific Space applications. In [109,110], the state of the art of the lithium-ion battery-based electrical power subsystem for Earth orbit satellites and launch vehicles for various mission applications is analyzed.
• Hardware-software techniques: Combinations of hardware and software strategies are proposed as COTS solutions. In [111], a technique is described that uses the On-Board Computer (OBC) and fault modelling to compare the effectiveness of fault tolerance techniques for SEU, which were implemented on an embedded Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) System on Chip (SoC) platform. In [112], the development of a high-performance data acquisition, cloud screening, and compression computing system for space imaging spectrometers is proposed, targeting a COTS board based on an embedded FPGA-dual-core-processor SoC. In [113], a ground-space tracking system placed on a 3U CubeSat is presented, in which the PX4 drone operating system is used for the first time in conjunction with a 32-bit microcontroller (STM32) satellite-on-chip system. The main objective of PX4 is to use COTS drone components. In [114], the development of a minimized operating system with built-in redundancy is proposed to reduce dependence on flash memory, in particular with a custom bootloader using a Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR) partition and a Random Access Memory (RAM-based) file system available in the boot process. In [115], different modular redundancy schemes with different voter structures are compared for the qualification of a digital communications receiver, in which a space-grade, radiation-hardened Virtex-5QV (XQR5VFx130) is compared to the COTS Kintex-7 (KC7K325T). Triple modular redundancy with a single voter at the end is suggested, making the Virtex-5QV in this configuration almost as reliable as the Kintex-7 in an N modular redundancy configuration with a highly reliable external voter.
• Electronic devices and sensors: This group includes the development and application of electronic sensors, tests, devices, and systems, as well as power sources. Ref. [116] reports on the design of a low-cost long-wave infrared spectral sensor based on a low-mass, low-power hyperspectral thermal imager with an electronic architecture suitable for using COTS electronic components. The tested electronic components—microcontroller, dedicated flash memory, and camera module—are the main part of the imaging payload in the BIRDS-4 1U CubeSat constellation project in [117], where the in-orbit results are reported. The key functional modules of the Debris Removal and On-Orbit Maintenance Mission (DeBROOM) are implemented using COTS electronic components, whose feasibility is determined by the corresponding budgets [118]. Ref. [119] identifies the types of sensors required in emergency applications for femtosatellites and describes a study of the COTS sensor market, including high-performance, low-cost, and low-power sensors. Ref. [120] describes the use of a mini vector network analyzer as Ground Penetration Radar (GPR) in ultra-wideband radar applications based on COTS products, and the main conclusion is that it is possible to configure a functional ultra-wideband radar based on COTS elements and application-specific software design. Ref. [121] describes an approach to evaluating the reliability of a hardware system based on COTS components for space applications, analyzing the effect of uncertainty in failure rates and reliability estimation on the overall reliability of the system. In [122], multiple parameters that influence the performance of the most advanced low-cost aerosol sensors in measuring particles suspended in the spacecraft cabin are reviewed; these parameters and issues are studied with respect to a low-cost COTS-based aerosol sensor. Ref. [123] describes possible methods for characterizing and calibrating COTS sensors (magnetometer and MEMS gyroscope) on board a 2U-class nanosatellite. The Seeker project [124] is an ultra-low-cost approach to highly automated extravehicular inspection of manned and unmanned spacecraft, designed with extensive use of COTS components and built in-house at NASA’s Johnson Space Centre (JSC). According to [125], which describes the challenges of solar panel performance in deep-space missions, COTS solar cells available for space applications exhibit suboptimal performance under Low Irradiation and Low Temperature (LILT) operating conditions. In [126], a COTS silicon carbide (4H-SiC) ultraviolet (UV) photodiode was electrically characterized as a low-cost spectroscopic X-ray and gamma-ray photon counting detector. In [127], a lightweight, ultra-low-power proton fluence monitor is proposed as a COTS-based space proton sensor to detect the Non-Ionizing Energy Loss (NIEL) process affecting spacecraft onboard electronics. In [128], an experimental study is described that evaluates the COTS Microsoft Kinect v2 as an encounter and capture sensor for small satellites, which is proposed as a low-cost solution for in-orbit servicing and space debris removal. A critical component for adjusting the voltage and current values provided by the power distribution of a space mission is the DC-DC Point-of-Load (PoL) converter. The use of COTS for PoL converters enables significantly higher efficiencies, increased output current, reduced volume and mass, improved Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) performance, and lower costs [129]. In addition, COTS Gallium Nitride (GaN) switching devices have the advantage of fast switching with reliable radiation performance in a small physical space. Ref. [130] describes the design of an in-flight ambient temperature monitoring system for the Line Emission Mapper (LEM) Microcalorimeter Spectrometer, which is based on COTS electronic devices, namely three Warm Front-End Electronics (WFEE) boxes and six Digital Electronics and Event Processors (DEEP) boxes. The LEM mission is an X-ray survey mission designed to study the physics of galaxy formation. The development of the design, testing, and in-orbit operation of the UPMSat-2 solar sensor, composed of six COTS photodiodes, is described in [131], where the first solar sensor data results obtained during the mission have been validated with magnetometers and altitude control systems. The space applicability and reliability of an X-band solid-state power amplifier based on COTS GaN transistors with high electron mobility over a continuous year of operation in deep space are illustrated in [132]. In addition to the main instrumentation, ref. [133] recommends the development and acquisition of compact, low-cost, low-power sensor arrays focused on meteorology and space impacts for all future NASA missions, where possible, compact sensors are presented. In [134], the effects of radiation from Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) space flights on a COTS static RAM-based FPGA device within a digital system with a Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR) Technique are reported.
• Data processing units: This category considers COTS processing units that are suitable for meeting design criteria as solutions for microsatellite platforms in a wide range of missions. In [135], a test campaign is presented to identify one or more commercially available microprocessors with the latest technological innovations that meet a series of system criteria to be suitable as processors for microsatellite platforms for a wide range of missions. Ref. [136] describes a reconfigurable architecture for an embedded processor that is fully compatible with space requirements for critical space exploration systems, based on a dynamically reconfigurable multi-accelerator architecture. In [137], the design, implementation, and results of a set of IP processing cores that perform on-board hyperspectral image compression in compliance with the Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) 123.0-B-1 lossless standard are described. In [138], a heterogeneous multi-core SoC processor is evaluated for use on board spacecraft to support digital signal processors and novel, computationally demanding AI functionalities. The applicability of integrated Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) in space is studied in [139] by analyzing current space application domains to identify software domains useful for space and integrated GPU domains to assess whether integrated GPUs can meet the necessary computing power and identify the challenges that need to be addressed for their adoption in space. The multiMIND processing system, based on the latest Multiprocessor on Chip (MPSoC) COTS Xilinx Zynq Ultrascale+, has been proposed by Thales Alenia Space in [140] as a highly flexible, multi-mission solution with a modular software framework. The main objective is to meet the processing requirements of modern NewSpace applications in computing tasks such as signal, image, and AI algorithms. In [141], a variety of algorithms trained on Earth or Mars images and standard deep learning models for image classification were evaluated using inference neural network models deployed on COTS Qualcomm Snapdragon and Movidius Myriad X processors hosted on Hewlett Packard Enterprise’s Spaceborne Computer-2 aboard the International Space Station. COTS electronic hardware and On Board Software (OBSW) are designed and implemented in the HERCCULES mission in [142] as an affordable, fast, simple, and reliable solution for the application of balloons in thermal modelling and analysis of stratospheric systems.

Based on the literature, Figure 2 shows another statistical analysis of the found COTS applications. As can be seen, most of them are related to the aerospace field, followed by error detection and correction research.

According to the information gathered on the classification of COTS components in aerospace applications and based on the use of statistical tools, it is noteworthy that the most relevant areas of application are in electronic devices and sensors, as can be seen in Figure 3.

Three main means of validation were used in the reviewed COTS projects: space, airborne missions, and field laboratories. As expected, most of the reported work was validated in laboratories (accounting for almost three-quarters of the total), see Figure 4, followed by space and airborne missions.

In terms of payload structure types in COTS projects validated for space, the CubeSat standard is one of the most cost-effective solutions frequently used in a wide range of applications. Figure 5 shows that 74% of payload structures are based on the CubeSat standard. In recent years, there has been a notable increase in the use of small satellites, which are part of small missions and represent a much less expensive and affordable solution for academic development.

As shown in Figure 6 and based on statistical results, most COTS projects validated for space were launched using spacecraft, as part of larger missions or specific flights within specific projects. A small percentage of COTS projects validated for space used balloons.

Finally, Figure 7 presents a histogram of the analyzed articles along with the percentage distribution of their publication dates by decade. This temporal analysis allows us to identify trends in the adoption of COTS electronic components in space applications, as well as to assess the relevance of the reported solutions within a highly dynamic technological context.

It is observed that the highest concentration of publications occurs in the 2011–2020 period, which coincides with the increased use of COTS technologies as a viable alternative for reducing costs and development times in space missions. In contrast, the percentage corresponding to the current decade (2021–2030) is lower; however, this difference is attributed to the fact that this period is still ongoing, so the data available to date do not reflect the totality of the publications that will eventually be generated.

In this context, the temporal analysis not only describes the chronological distribution of the studies but also highlights trends in the transition from traditional approaches based on space-qualified components toward the growing use of commercial solutions. This is essential for situating the present review within the recent evolution of the field and for identifying emerging areas of research.

The suitability of COTS components for space applications is not determined by a single parameter but through a structured evaluation process. This process typically includes an initial screening based on manufacturer data and prior usage, followed by validation through radiation testing, environmental testing, and reliability assessment. In addition, system-level considerations such as derating, redundancy, and fault-tolerant design are used to manage potential risks. A COTS component is considered suitable when it meets mission requirements and its associated risks can be effectively mitigated while maintaining advantages in cost and availability.

Reliability techniques used to address the trade-off between cost and reliability in COTS-based space systems can be described as follows. Redundancy is widely used to handle functional failures, offering high effectiveness at the system level by enabling fault recovery; however, it increases mass, power consumption, and system complexity. Fault-tolerant design focuses on managing operational errors and transient faults, allowing continued system operation under fault conditions, although it requires more complex architectures and additional design effort. Radiation testing, including Total Ionizing Dose (TID) and Single-Event Effects (SEE) evaluation, is used to assess radiation-induced degradation and faults. This approach supports component selection and reduces uncertainty, but it does not eliminate all possible radiation-induced failure mechanisms. Environmental testing addresses thermal, vibration, and vacuum stresses, verifying performance under representative conditions, although testing environments may not fully replicate all mission scenarios.

Shielding is applied to reduce the impact of accumulated radiation, particularly TID effects, and can effectively lower total dose exposure; however, it has limited effectiveness against high-energy particle events associated with SEE. Finally, derating is used to reduce electrical and thermal stress on components, improving reliability and extending lifetime, although it may constrain performance and require more conservative design margins. Figure 8 presents the reliability techniques typically used to evaluate and validate the suitability of COTS components for space applications.

In space projects, the conflict between low cost, high performance, and long lifespan is often defined as the “Iron Triad” of systems design. This tension is fundamental because decisions made to optimize one variable often directly degrade the other two.

The Main Conflict.

• Design Trade-offs: The core of the conflict is that high computational or transmission performance generally requires cutting-edge technologies (such as 7 nm chips) that are inherently more vulnerable to radiation and have less well-understood failure mechanisms than mature, robust technologies.
• Performance vs. Reliability: Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) components offer superior speeds at a fraction of the cost but lack the traceability and radiation tolerance of military-grade or space-grade components.
• Cost vs. Longevity: New Space satellites typically use cheaper components for short missions (1–3 years), whereas NASA’s deep-space exploration missions, for example, require high-quality components that can cost 100 times more to ensure a decades-long lifespan [143,144].

Evaluation of Existing Techniques.

To resolve this conflict, engineers use a combination of strategies, each with critical benefits and limitations. An emerging solution to overcome this conflict is not to improve individual hardware, but to change the system architecture. Instead of a single, highly reliable, and expensive satellite, megaconstellations (like Starlink) utilize system-level redundancy.

• Effectiveness: If one inexpensive satellite fails, the others cover its function. This enables high overall throughput and low per-unit costs.
• Limitation: It creates space congestion and debris problems, as well as requiring a highly sophisticated launch infrastructure to maintain the replacement rate [145,146,147].

5. Conclusions

Electronic components are the most widely used type of COTS in critical missions, accounting for 44% of the work reviewed. Approximately 81% of the projects reviewed focused on the use of COTS in space, of which 22%, 75%, and 3% were validated for space, terrestrial, and air missions, respectively. The payload structure in 74% of space-validated systems was based on the CubeSat standard, and 26% on different platforms. The launch vehicles for space missions were mainly spacecraft (96%), and the rest were balloons. The most widely used reliability technique is fault tolerance (26%), followed by radiation testing (24%).

It is not possible to accurately measure the efficiency of COTS components when compared to space-grade components because several different factors are involved, including the type of component and mission specifications.

In general, components specifically designed for space applications offer high reliability due to rigorous qualification processes, but they involve higher costs and longer development times. In contrast, Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) components provide advantages in terms of cost, availability, and rapid integration, which have increased their use in New Space missions.

Based on the reviewed literature, the use of COTS components is supported by well-defined risk management practices rather than only their cost advantages. These practices include screening procedures, radiation testing focused on Total Ionizing Dose (TID) and Single-Event Effects (SEE), environmental testing, derating, redundancy, and fault-tolerant design. In many cases, these approaches are aligned with established guidelines such as those from ECSS and NASA, which provide criteria for evaluating and validating components for space use.

Therefore, the use of COTS components should be understood not only as a cost-effective alternative, but as an approach that relies on testing, design strategies, and engineering practices to achieve reliable performance in space environments.

In some cases, commercial components can be as efficient as components designed explicitly for use in space, but this depends on the quality and specific specifications of the components and the requirements of the space mission. Hence, a key step in the design process is to carry out a careful evaluation of the components based on the needs of the space mission in order to determine the most suitable and efficient ones.

This article addresses various aspects related to the use of COTS in critical missions, such as the effects of radiation, methods for improving reliability, fault tolerance testing, and applications.

The use of COTS components has progressively expanded beyond non-critical subsystems and is now being incorporated into more demanding applications within space systems. Recent developments report the adoption of COTS technologies in areas such as high-performance computing, command and data handling (C&DH), onboard artificial intelligence and edge computing, satellite communications and RF systems, navigation and attitude determination control systems (ADCS), payload data processing, and power management and distribution. This evolution reflects the growing confidence in COTS-based solutions when supported by appropriate validation and mitigation strategies.

At the same time, the literature highlights the importance of subsystem criticality in the selection and validation of COTS components. According to NASA and ESA practices, subsystems are classified based on their impact on mission success, operational continuity, and safety. Critical subsystems are those whose failure may result in loss of mission, severe spacecraft damage, or safety risks, while non-critical subsystems mainly affect mission performance or scientific return without causing immediate mission loss. This classification directly influences the level of testing, qualification, and assurance required for the implementation of COTS components in space applications.

This work is not intended to deliver a comprehensive comparative assessment of all available solutions; rather, it aims to identify general trends, key challenges, and representative approaches in the use of COTS components for space applications.