The Impacts of Climate Change on Road Traffic Accidents in Saudi Arabia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Road Traffic Accidents in Saudi Arabia
2.2. Climate Change in Saudi Arabia
2.3. Road Traffic Accidents and Climate Change
- Is there a a positive relationship between climate change (such as rainfall, temperature, dust/sand storms) and RTAs?
- Is the impact of climate change on RTAs higher inside cities than outside cities?
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Data
3.2. Variables and Model
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive Analysis
4.2. Regression Analysis
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- AASHTO. Highway Safety Manual; American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials: Washington, DC, USA, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- WHO. Global Status Report on Road Safety 2015; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- WHO. Global Status Report on Road Safety 2018; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Jacobs, G.; Aeron-Thomas, A.; Astrop, A. Estimating Global Road Fatalities; TRL Report No. 445; Transport Research Laboratory: Crowthorne, UK, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- World Bank. Climate Change Knowledge Portal: For Development Practitioners and Policy Makers. 2016. Available online: http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/index.cfm?page=downscaled_data_download&menu=historical (accessed on 10 May 2018).
- Association for Safe International Road Travel (ASIRT). Annual Global Road Crash Statistics. 2013. Available online: https://www.asirt.org/safe-travel/road-safety-facts/ (accessed on 21 August 2019).
- WHO. Global Status Report on Road Safety 2013; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Broughton, J.; Johnson, B.; Knight, I.; Lawton, B.; Lynam, D.; Whitfield, P.; Allsop, R. Road Safety Strategy Beyond 2010—A Scoping Study; Road Safety Research Report No. 105; Department for Transport: London, UK, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Wegman, F.; Hagenzieker, M. Editorial safety science special issue road safety management. SWOV Inst. Road Saf. Res. 2010, 48, 1081–1084. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hijar, M.; Carrillo, C.; Flores, M.; Anaya, R.; Lopez, V. Risk factors in highway traffic accidents: A case control study. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2000, 32, 703–709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mannering, F.L.; Shankar, V.; Bhat, C.R. Unobserved heterogeneity and the statistical analysis of highway accident data. Anal. Methods Accid. Res. 2016, 11, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barrimah, I.; Midhet, F.; Sharaf, F. Epidemiology of road traffic injuries in qassim region, saudi arabia: Consistency of police and health data. Int. J. Health Sci. 2012, 6, 31–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mansuri, F.A.; Al-Zalabani, A.H.; Zalat, M.M.; Qabshawi, R.I. Road safety and road traffic accidents in Saudi Arabia: A systematic review of existing evidence. Saudi Med. J. 2015, 36, 418–424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wintemute, G.J. Is motor vehicle-related mortality a disease of development. Accid. Anal. Prev. 1985, 17, 223–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aarts, L.; Van Schagen, I. Driving speed and the risk of road crashes: A review. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2006, 38, 215–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Soderlund, N.; Zwi, A.B. Traffic-related mortality in industrialized and less developed countries. Bull. World Health Organ. 1995, 73, 175–182. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Van Beeck, E.F.; Borsboom, G.J.; Mackenbach, J.P. Economic development and traffic accident mortality in the industrialized world, 1962–1990. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2000, 29, 503–509. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, W.K.; Lee, H.A.; Hwang, S.S.; Kim, H.; Lim, Y.H.; Hong, Y.C. A time series study on the effects of cold temperature on road traffic injuries in Seoul, Korea. Environ Res. 2014, 132, 290–296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO. Global Tuberculosis Control, WHO Report 2011; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Alvarez, F.J.; Fierro, I. Older drivers, medical condition, medical impairment and crash risk. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2008, 40, 55–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Vision 2030 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 2016. Available online: https://www.vision2030.gov.sa (accessed on 12 May 2019).
- Qiu, L.; Nixon, W.A. Effects of adverse weather on traffic crashes: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Transp. Res. Rec. 2008, 2055, 139–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andrey, J. Long-term trends in weather-related crash risks. J. Transp. Geogr. 2010, 18, 247–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bener, A.; Al Maadid, M.G.; Ozkan, T.; Al-Bast, D.A.; Diyab, K.N.; Lajunen, T. The impact of four-wheel drive on risky driver behaviours and road traffic accidents. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 2008, 11, 324–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hassan, H.M. Investigation of the self-reported aberrant driving behavior of young male Saudi drivers: A survey-based study. J. Transp. Saf. Secur. 2015, 8, 113–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ministry of Interior. The Statistical Report for the Year of 1431H; General Administration of Traffic: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Al-Turki, Y.A. How can Saudi Arabia use the Decade of Action for Road Safety to catalyse road traffic injury prevention policy and interventions? Int. J. Inj. Control Saf. Promot. 2014, 21, 397–402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ansari, S.; Akhdar, F.; Mandoorah, M.; Moutaery, K. Causes and effects of road traffic accidents in Saudi Arabia. Public Health 2000, 114, 37–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saudi Arabia Monetary Agency. The 32nd Annual Report 1417H; The Economical and Statistical Research Office: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 1997. [Google Scholar]
- Al-Atawi, A.; Saleh, W. Travel behaviour in Saudi Arabia and the role of social factors. Transport 2014, 29, 269–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Transport Ministry. Annual Report 2018; Ministry of Transport, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 2018. Available online: https://www.mot.gov.sa/ar/AboutUs/Documents/MOT%20annual%20report%202018%20vertical%20A%20V7%20LO_-.pdf (accessed on 10 January 2019).
- WHO. Deaths on the Roads: Based on the WHO Global Status Report on Road Safety 2015; World Health Organisation: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Arab News. The Signs of Climate Change in the Middle East. 3 April 2019. Available online: http://www.arabnews.com/node/1477366 (accessed on 10 January 2019).
- Tarawneh, Y.Q.; Chowdhury, S. Trends of Climate Change in Saudi Arabia: Implications on Water Resources. Climate 2018, 6, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Almazroui, M.; Nazrul Islam, M.; Athar, H.; Jonesa, P.D.; Ashfaqur Rahmana, M. Recent climate change in the Arabian Peninsula: Annual rainfall and temperature analysis of Saudi Arabia for 1978–2009. Int. J. Climatol. 2012, 32, 953–966. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chowdhury, S.; Al-Zahrani, M. Implications of Climate Change on Water Resources in Saudi Arabia. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 2013, 38, 1959–1971. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Albugami, S.; Palmer, S.; Cinnamon, J.; Meersmans, J. Spatial and Temporal Variations in the Incidence of Dust Storms in Saudi Arabia Revealed from In Situ Observations. Geosciences 2019, 9, 162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Herslund, M.B.; Jørgensen, N.O. Looked-but-failed-to-see-errors in traffic. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2003, 35, 885–891. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Groeger, J.A. Frontiers of Cognitive Science. Understanding Driving: Applying Cognitive Psychology to a Complex Everyday Task; Psychology Press: New York, NY, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Shahid, S.; Minhans, A. Climate change and road safety: A review to assess impacts in Malaysia. J. Teknol. 2016, 78, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cromley, E.K. Risk factors contributing to motor vehicle accidents in an environment of uncertainty. Stoch. Environ. Res. Risk Assess. 2007, 21, 363–376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Palutikof, J.P. Road Accidents and Weather. In Highway Meteorology; Perry, A.H., Symons, L.J., Eds.; E. & F.N. Spon: London, UK, 1991; pp. 163–189. [Google Scholar]
- Edwards, J.B. Weather-related road accidents in England and Wales: A spatial analysis. J. Transp. Geogr. 1996, 4, 201–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Edwards, J.B. The temporal distribution of road accidents in adverse weather. Meteorol. Appl. 1999, 6, 59–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perrels, A.; Votsis, A.; Nurmi, V.; Pilli-Sihvola, K. Weather Conditions, Weather Information and Car Crashes. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2015, 4, 2681–2703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andrey, J.C.; Mills, B.; Leahy, M.; Suggett, J. Weather as a chronic hazard for road transportation in Canadian cities. Nat. Hazards 2003, 28, 319–343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eisenberg, D.; Warner, K. Effects of snowfalls on motor vehicle Collisions, Injuries, and Fatalities. Am. J. Public Health 2005, 95, 120–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fridstrom, L. Econometric Models of Road Use, Accidents, and Road Investment Decisions; Institute of Transport Economics: Oslo, Norway, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Musk, L. Climate as a Factor in the Planning and Design of New Roads and Motorways. In Highway Meteorology; Perry, A.H., Symons, L.J., Eds.; E. & F.N. Spon: London, UK, 1991; pp. 1–25. [Google Scholar]
- White, M.E.; Jeffrey, D.J. Some Aspects of Motorway Traffic Behaviour in Fog; TRL: Crowthorne, UK, 1980. [Google Scholar]
- Musk, L.F. The local fog hazard as a factor in planning new roads and motorways. Env. Educ. Plan. 1982, 2, 119–129. [Google Scholar]
- Jaroszweski, D.; McNamara, T. The influence of rainfall on road accidents in urban areas: A weather radar approach. Travel Behav. Soc. 2014, 1, 15–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jaroszweski, D.; Chapman, L.; Petts, J. Climate Change and Road Freight Safety: A Multidisciplinary Exploration. Clim. Chang. 2013, 120, 785–799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bergel-Hayat, R.; Debbarh, M.; Antoniou, C.; Yannis, G. Explaining the road accident risk: Weather effects. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2013, 60, 456–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hambly, D.; Andrey, J.; Mills, B.; Fletcher, C. Projected implications of climate change for road safety in Greater Vancouver, Canada. Clim. Chang. 2013, 116, 613–629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martí, I.; Tomás, V.R.; García, L.A.; Martínez, J.J. A Multi-Agent System for Managing Adverse Weather Situations on the Road Network. Integr. Comput. Aided Eng. 2010, 17, 145–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hermans, E.; Wets, G.; Van Den Bossche, F. Frequency and severity of Belgian road traffic accidents studied by state-space methods. J. Transp. Stat. 2006, 9, 63–76. [Google Scholar]
- Eisenberg, D. The mixed effects of precipitation on traffic crashes. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2004, 36, 637–647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fridstrom, L.; Ifver, J.; Ingebrigtsen, S.; Kulmala, R.; Thomsen, L.K. Measuring the contribution of randomness, exposure, weather, and daylight to the variation in road accident counts. Accid. Anal. Prev. 1995, 27, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mondal, P.; Sharma, N.; Kumar, A.; Bhangale, U.D.; Tyagi, D.; Singh, R. Effect of Rainfall and Wet Road Condition on Road Crashes: A Critical Analysis. SAE Tech. 2011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Keay, K.; Simmonds, I. The Association of Rainfall and other Weather Variables with Road Traffic Volume in Melbourne, Australia. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2005, 37, 109–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Daanen, H.M.; Van De Vliert, E.; Huang, X. Driving performance in cold, warm, and thermoneutral environments. Appl. Erg. 2003, 34, 597–602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Basagana, X.; Escalera-Antezana, J.P.; Dadvand, P.; Llatje, O.; Barrera-Gomez, J.; Cunillera, J.; Medina-Ramón, M.; Perez, K. High ambient temperatures and risk of motor vehicle crashes in catalonia, spain (2000–2011): A time-series analysis. Env. Health Perspect. 2015, 123, 1309–1316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu, A.; Soneja, S.I.; Jiang, C.; Huang, C.; Kerns, T.; Beck, K.; Mitchell, C.; Sapkota, A. Frequency of extreme weather events and increased risk of motor vehicle collision in maryland. Sci. Total Env. 2017, 580, 550–555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yaacob, H.; Hainin, M.R.; Nair, S.; Baskara, L. Effect of Rainfall Intensity and Road Crossfall on Skid Resistance of Asphalt Pavement. J. Teknol. 2014, 70, 121–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Harbi, M.; Yassin, M.F.; Shams, M.B. Stochastic Modeling of the Impact of Meteorological Conditions on Road Traffic Accidents. Stoch. Environ. Res. Risk Assess. 2012, 26, 739–750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yannis, G.; Karlaftis, G.M. Weather Effects on Daily Traffic Accidents and Fatalities: A Time Series Count Data Approach. 2016. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268416925_Weather_Effects_on_Daily_Traffic_Accidents_and_Fatalities_A_Time_Series_Count_Data_Approach (accessed on 10 January 2019).
- Wåhlberg, A.E. If You Can’t Take The Heat: Influences of Temperature on Bus Accident Rates. Saf. Sci. 2008, 46, 66–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brijs, T.; Karlis, D.; Wets, G. Studying the effect of weather conditions on daily crash counts using a discrete time series model. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2008, 40, 1180–1190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stipdonk, H.L. (Ed.) Time Series Applications on Road Safety Developments in Europe. Deliverable D7.10 of the EU FP6 Project SafetyNet. 2008. Available online: http://www.erso.eu/safetynet/fixed/WP7/SN_D7.10_final.pdf (accessed on 10 January 2019).
- Solomon, E. Real-Time Dust Storm Forecasting. Masdar News. 18 July 2016. Available online: https://news.masdar.ac.ae/explore-news/stories-by-type/transformation/item/9277-real-time-duststorm-forecasting.html (accessed on 6 January 2016).
- Foreman, T. The Effects of Dust Storms on Economic Development. 2018. Available online: http://ic-sd.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2018/10/Timothy-Foreman.pdf (accessed on 11 January 2019).
- Shoemaker, C.; Davis, J.T. Hazardous Weather Climatology for Arizona. NOAA Technical Memorandum, NWS-WR 282. 2008; p. 47. Available online: http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/wrh/techMemos/TM-282.pdf (accessed on 11 January 2019).
- Morales, C. Saharan Dust: Mobilization, Transport, Deposition (SCOPE Report 14); John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 1979; pp. 233–242. [Google Scholar]
- Hagen, L.J.; Woodruff, N.P. Air pollution from dust storms in the Great Plains. Atmos. Environ. 1973, 7, 323–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Middleton, N.J.; Chaudhary, Q.Z. Severe dust storm at Karachi, 31 May 1986. Weather 1988, 438, 298–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dayan, U.; Heffter, J.; Miller, J.; Gutman, G. Dust intrusion events into the Mediterranean Basin. J. Appl. Meteorol. 1991, 30, 1185–1199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chung, Y.S.; Yoon, M.B. On the occurrence of yellow sand and atmospheric loadings. Atmos. Environ. 1996, 3013, 2387–2397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Staines, T. Car Crashes and the Weather: An Exploratory Analysis of Environmental Conditions’ Impact on Traffic Accident Rates. 2018. Available online: https://towardsdatascience.com/car-crashes-and-the-weather-an-exploratory-analysis-of-environmental-conditions-impact-on-traffic-12bcb7f9afed (accessed on 6 January 2019).
- Ministry of Interior. Dataset Info. General Directorate of Traffic, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 2015. Available online: http://www.data.gov.sa/en/dataset/traffic-accidents (accessed on 10 May 2018).
- Presidency of Meteorology and Environment. Climate Report; General Authority for Meteorology and Environmental Protection, KSA. 2017. Available online: https://www.pme.gov.sa/Ar/Meteorology/Pages/ClimateReport.aspx (accessed on 10 May 2018).
- Our World in Data. Causes of Death: Road Incidents. 2018. Available online: https://ourworldindata.org/causes-of-death#road-incidents (accessed on 10 May 2018).
- Global Health Data Exchange. Health Statistical Year Book. Ministry of Health, Saudi Arabia. 2017. Available online: http://ghdx.healthdata.org/geography/saudi-arabia (accessed on 12 May 2018).
- Greene, W.H. Econometric Analysis; Pearson Education: Delhi, India, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Al-Hemoud, A.; Al-Dousari, A.; Misak, R.; Al-Sudairawi, M.; Naseeb, A.; Al-Dashti, H.; Al-Dousari, N. Economic Impact and Risk Assessment of Sand and Dust Storms (SDS) on the Oil and Gas Industry in Kuwait. Sustainability 2019, 11, 200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al Harbi, B.H.; Moied, K. Riyadh Air Quality Report (1999–2004); Report No. 279-25-ER; King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Maghrabi, A.; Alharbi, B.; Tapper, N. Impact of the March 2009 dust event in Saudi Arabia on aerosol optical properties, meteorological parameters, sky temperature and emissivity. Atmos. Environ. 2011, 45, 2164–2173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qayed, M.H. Epidemiology of road traffic accidents in Al Ahsaa Governorate, Saudi Arabia. East Mediterr. Health J. 1998, 4, 513–520. [Google Scholar]
- DeNicola, E.; Aburizaize, O.S.; Siddique, A.; Khwaja, H.; Carpenter, D.O. Road Traffic Injury as a Major Public Health Issue in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: A Review. Front. Public Health 2016, 4, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Allen-Munley, C.; Daniel, J. Urban Bicycle Route Safety Rating Model Application in Jersey City, New Jersey. J. Transp. Eng. 2006, 6, 499–507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morgan, A.S.; Dale, H.B.; Lee, W.E.; Edwards, P.J. Deaths of cyclists in London: Trends from 1992 to 2006. BMC Public Health 2010, 10, 699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manson, J.; Cooper, S.; West, A.; Foster, E.; Cole, E.; Tai, N.R.M. Major trauma and urban cyclists: Physiological status and injury profile. Emerg. Med. J. 2013, 30, 32–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pokorny, P.; Drescher, J.; Pitera, K.; Jonsson, T. Accidents between freight vehicles and bicycles, with a focus on urban areas. Transp. Res. Procedia 2017, 25, 999–1007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaplan, S.; Vavatsoulas, K.; Prato, C.G. Aggravating and mitigating factors associated with cyclist injury severity in Denmark. J. Saf. Res. 2014, 50, 75–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kroyer, H.R.G. The relation between speed environment, age and injury outcome for bicyclists struck by a motorized vehicle—A comparison with pedestrians. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2015, 76, 57–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cheng, A.S.; Liu, K.P.; Tulliani, N. Relationship between driving-violation behaviours and risk perception in motorcycle accidents. Hong Kong J. Occup. Ther. 2015, 25, 32–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jama, H.H.; Grzebieta, R.H.; Friswell, R.; McIntosh, A.S. Characteristics of fatal motorcycle crashes into roadside safety barriers in Australia and New Zealand. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2011, 43, 652–660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lucidi, F.; Giannini, A.M.; Sgalla, R.; Mallia, L.; Devoto, A.; Reichmann, S. Young novice driver subtypes: Relationship to driving violations, errors and lapses. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2010, 42, 1689–1696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Variable Name | Observation | Mean | Standard Deviation | Minimum Value | Maximum Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TOD | Total number of deaths | 143 | 695.7 | 29.02 | 649 | 739 |
PDD | Pedestrian death | 143 | 134.55 | 6.55 | 130 | 154 |
CYD | Cyclist death | 143 | 10.10 | 0.67 | 9 | 12 |
MCD | Motorcyclist death | 143 | 29.40 | 1.62 | 26 | 31 |
MVD | Motor vehicle (drivers and passengers) death | 143 | 521 | 29.37 | 462 | 556 |
TIJ | Total injuries | 143 | 2832.30 | 3237.85 | 88 | 14,932 |
ICA | Inside-city accidents | 143 | 25,413.44 | 37,220.81 | 461 | 165,853 |
OCA | Outside-city accidents | 143 | 5205.46 | 6372.81 | 27 | 31,907 |
TAC | Total number of accidents | 143 | 30,619 | 40,755.12 | 1103 | 166,814 |
ATM | Avg temperature | 143 | 26 | 2.96 | 20 | 33 |
ARF | Avg rainfall | 143 | 4.00 | 1.76 | 0.5 | 9.33 |
FST | Frequency of sandstorm | 143 | 3.48 | 3.62 | 0 | 14 |
TVH | Total number of vehicles | 143 | 382,391.5 | 77,408.50 | 275,385 | 507,692 |
Variables | Model 1: (POLS) DV=ICA | Model 2: (POLS) DV=OCA | Model 3: (POLS) DV=TAC |
---|---|---|---|
ATM | 4691.04 *** | 688.86 *** | 5379.91 *** |
(−931.59) | (−163.32) | (−1000.09) | |
ARF | 6960.86 *** | 1343.43 *** | 8304.3 *** |
(−1567.65) | (−274.83) | (−1682.91) | |
FST | 1610.9 ** | 22.69 | 1633.6 *** |
(−759.14) | (−133.09) | (−814.95) | |
TVH | 0.086 *** | −0.012 | 0.099 ** |
(−0.035) | (−0.006) | (−0.038) | |
Constant | 474.4 | 31.73 | 306.1 |
Variables | Model 4: (RE) DV=TIJ | Model 5: (FE) DV=TIJ | Model 6: (FE) DV=TOD | Model 7: (FE) DV=TOD |
---|---|---|---|---|
TIJ | 0.004 ** | 0.004 ** | ||
(−0.002) | (−0.001) | |||
ICA | 0.011 ** | 0.0006 *** | ||
(−0.005) | (−0.0001) | |||
OCA | 0.124 *** | 0.001 | ||
(−0.028) | (−0.0007) | |||
TAC | 0.017 ** | 0.0006 *** | ||
(−0.005) | (−0.00001) | |||
Constant | 1883.1 | 2283.3 | 661.89 | 662.33 |
Variables | Model 8: (POLS) DV=PDD | Model 9: (POLS) DV=PDD | Model 10: (FE) DV=CYD | Model 11: (FE) DV=CYD | Model 12:(FE) DV=MCD | Model 13: (FE) DV=MCD | Model 14: (FE) DV=MVD | Model 15: (FE) DV=MVD |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TIJ | −0.00005 (0.0002) | −0.00004 (0.0002) | 6.751 (0.0005) | 0.00002 (0.00004) | 0.0001 (0.0001) | 0.0001 (0.00009) | 0.004 ** (0.002) | 0.004 ** (0.001) |
ICA | −9.070 (0.0001) | 6.771 * (3.460) | 0.0003 *** (6.89) | 0.0006 *** (0.0001) | ||||
OCA | 7.560 (0.0001) | 0.00002 (0.00001) | 0.00002 (0.00003) | 0.001 (0.0007) | ||||
TAC | −7.890 (0.00001) | 7.92 ** (3.25) | 0.00003 *** (0.0001) | 0.0006 *** (0.0001) | ||||
Constant | 134.79 | 134.81 | 9.846 | 9.864 | 28.14 | 28.13 | 486.17 | 486.52 |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Islam, M.M.; Alharthi, M.; Alam, M.M. The Impacts of Climate Change on Road Traffic Accidents in Saudi Arabia. Climate 2019, 7, 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli7090103
Islam MM, Alharthi M, Alam MM. The Impacts of Climate Change on Road Traffic Accidents in Saudi Arabia. Climate. 2019; 7(9):103. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli7090103
Chicago/Turabian StyleIslam, Md. Mazharul, Majed Alharthi, and Md. Mahmudul Alam. 2019. "The Impacts of Climate Change on Road Traffic Accidents in Saudi Arabia" Climate 7, no. 9: 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli7090103