General Limitations to Endophytic Entomopathogenic Fungi Use as Plant Growth Promoters, Pests and Pathogens Biocontrol Agents
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Specific Approaches for Entomopathogenic Fungi Application as Pest Biocontrol Agents
3. Entomopathogenic Fungi Application in Plants
4. The Constraints to Entomopathogenic Endophytic Fungi Application for Plant Improvement, Pests and Diseases Management
4.1. The Challenges in Isolation and Identification of Fungal Endophytes
4.2. Fungal Entomopathogens Irregular Distribution in the Soil
4.3. Level of Fungal Entomopathogens Virulence and Persistence on the Field
4.4. Residual Effects on Predators, Parasitoids, and Other Non-Target Organisms
4.5. Fungal Endophytes as Causative Agents of Livestock and Human Toxicosis
4.6. Evidence of Endophytic Fungi Altering Host Defense System and Indirectly Promoting Pest Attack in Plant Hosts
4.7. Epicuticular Waxes and Plant Volatiles Influencing Endophytic Entomopathogenic Fungi Activities in the Host Plants
5. Recent Research Advances and Future Research Needs
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Specific Factors | Results/Observations | References | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Fungal features | Epizootic potential | Spores germination | EPF require favorable environmental conditions to germinate, sporulate and cause infection in the targeted insect pests. The ability of EPF to establish disease epizootics is greatly influenced by various ecological conditions. In addition, successful spore germination can also be limited by certain cuticular lipids on the insects, including aldehydes, fatty acids, ketones, wax esters, and alcohols which may possess antimicrobial activity. | [2,38,60,61,62] |
Sporulation | ||||
Virulence | ||||
Persistence | EPF overall performance is limited due to lack of persistence and low rate of infection under challenging environmental conditions. Fungal persistence is hugely influenced by several abiotic and biotic factors, including soil moisture, temperature, soil microorganisms, soil-inhabiting insects and plants. | [2,60,61,63] | ||
Others | Fungi host range | Several fungal strains have a restricted host range. For instance, B. bassiana, despite the broad spectrum and prevalence in multiple insect orders, available reports have indicated that some B. bassiana strains are more restricted or host specific. The strains exhibit host-insect preferences and are specific to certain insect order. However, the host range of M. anisopliae is generally more restricted than that of B. bassiana. | [2,46,47,48,60,64] | |
Isolation and characterization | Many fungal endophyte strains are unculturable. As a result, measuring and identifying the endophyte community structure and diversity has been a difficult task. Isolation of novel strains cannot rely on growth media based- or other traditional techniques only. Successful isolation of new fungal strains requires the application of molecular and other modern techniques. | [65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72] | ||
Spores localization/dispersal/mobility | The irregular localization or biodiversity of EPF in soils as a result of geographic and climatic conditions greatly influence fungal endophytes and EPF utilization. Soil moisture, soil type, soil organisms, and the plant roots influence the dispersal and mobility of fungal spores in the soil. | [60,69,73,74] | ||
Potentials for mass production | Until date, more than 170 fungal strains have been formulated as mycopesticides and are available for commercial use. However, mass production for commercial use is cost-intensive. In addition, significant decline in virulence due to changes in physiological and developmental process of fungi following repeated mass production of the same species on artificial medium has been reported. Additional underlying problems related to the development of EPF as mycoinsecticides have also been documented. | [2,20,25,56,60,61,75,76,77,78] | ||
Suitability for storage and formulation | EPF generally have short shelf life. Fungal conidia cannot be stored over a long duration. However, oil formulations can help protect fungal spores from the negative impact of harsh environmental conditions. | [61,62] | ||
Fungal toxicological and safety aspects | One of the major public concerns related to EPF application is the safety of users, other humans, animals, plants, natural enemies, pollinators and the general ecosystem. In addition, most biochemical compounds synthesized by fungal endophytes are notorious for causing problems for livestock. | [2,6,60,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93] | ||
Compatibility with other pest and disease control techniques | The efficacy of EPF and fungal endophytes can be improved if applied in an integrative manner in combination with other biological, cultural or conventional measures. For instance, autodissemination strategies involving the combination of EPF and attractant traps or contamination devices has been effective. The compatibility of EPF with many other biological control agents, especially the associated natural enemies of targeted pests, such as predators and parasitoids would increase the overall level of performance. | [38,62,75,94,95,96,97,98] | ||
Host features | Target host susceptibility | Infection development greatly depends on susceptibility of the target host, total population and the rate of successful transfer of fungal infection from infected hosts to the healthy ones. Certain insect species exhibit huge tolerance level to EPF treatment and have been found to be susceptible only to the fungal strains isolated from insects of the same species. | [2,38,99,100] | |
Target host population | High population densities increase the chances of contact among individuals and improves pathogen transmission. Overpopulation increases the stress and fungal infection. | [101,102] | ||
Insect pests response to EPF volatile organic compounds | Some insect species including mole crickets, termites, and mites are able to detect and avoid soil or leaves treated with conidia of EPF belonging to the genera Metarhizium and Beauveria. Similarly, ants such as Formica selysi and Lasius neglectus workers can detect EPF and alter their behavior accordingly. | [103,104,105,106] | ||
Crop structure or constituents; Epicuticular waxes or plant volatiles | The host-plant chemistry influences fungal infection, by suppression or enhancing conidial germination and potential colonization. Plant species such as cyclamen, Chinese cabbage, oilseed rape, etc., are able to exert negative effects on the activity of fungi with the help of their root and the root exudates. | [2,60,107,108,109,110] | ||
Host-plant quality; effect of plant species | Plant species influence on B. bassiana virulence and persistence against various insects including silverleaf whitefly, tarnished plant bugs, and chinch bugs has been reported. | [60,111,112,113,114] | ||
Economic injury level | For inundative application, EPF are commonly applied following establishment of pests. The pest are to be present before the pathogen can be dispersed thus making preventive treatment difficult. | [38,61] | ||
Insect pests life stage | Some insects are able to evade fungal infection by molting. As a result, several EPF strains are unable to induce fungal disease in earlier larval stage. | [115,116,117] | ||
Density and spatial distribution of spore in relation to release or inoculation strategy | Most EPF strains are often slow acting and require application in very large quantity and thorough spray coverage. | [38,41,42,61] | ||
Environmental factors | Abiotic factors | Relative humidity (RH) | Humidity affects the efficacy and survival of fungal pathogens. High humidity is required for optimum germination of fungal conidia. High RH promotes host cuticle penetration by conidia. 100% RH is the most suitable for fungal spore germination. | [2,60,62,118,119,120] |
Temperature | The rate of fungal conidia germination, growth and viability in the laboratory and on the field is affected by temperature. Most strains of insect-pathogenic fungi grow and sporulate at optimum temperature approximately 15–30 °C | [2,60,120,121,122] | ||
Soil moisture and PH | A large number of entomopathogenic fungal species are soil inhabiting, soil moisture and PH, in addition to soil temperature, in the presence of other soil-inhabiting microbes and organisms greatly influence the persistence, survival and level of effectiveness of EPF in the soil. | [123,124] | ||
Rain | Water applied to the soil through irrigation or during rainfall enhances migration/percolation of fungal spores into the soil. Water as dew or raindrops is responsible for dispersal of fungal conidia, while rainwater greatly influences the stability and efficacy of fungal spores on plants in the field. | [2,60,62,125] | ||
Irrigation | ||||
Dew drops | ||||
Solar ultraviolet radiation (UV) | Solar radiation determines the efficacy of fungal spores on the field. UV-A and UV-B affect the survival and reduce level of effectiveness on treated crops. | [60,123,124,126,127] | ||
Biotic factors | Microbial interaction | When EPF are treated in garden soils in greenhouses or on open fields, soil-inhabiting microbes and other soil-dwelling organisms greatly influence the persistence, survival and level of effectiveness of EPF. | [124,126,127] |
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Bamisile, B.S.; Siddiqui, J.A.; Akutse, K.S.; Ramos Aguila, L.C.; Xu, Y. General Limitations to Endophytic Entomopathogenic Fungi Use as Plant Growth Promoters, Pests and Pathogens Biocontrol Agents. Plants 2021, 10, 2119. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10102119
Bamisile BS, Siddiqui JA, Akutse KS, Ramos Aguila LC, Xu Y. General Limitations to Endophytic Entomopathogenic Fungi Use as Plant Growth Promoters, Pests and Pathogens Biocontrol Agents. Plants. 2021; 10(10):2119. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10102119
Chicago/Turabian StyleBamisile, Bamisope Steve, Junaid Ali Siddiqui, Komivi Senyo Akutse, Luis Carlos Ramos Aguila, and Yijuan Xu. 2021. "General Limitations to Endophytic Entomopathogenic Fungi Use as Plant Growth Promoters, Pests and Pathogens Biocontrol Agents" Plants 10, no. 10: 2119. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10102119