Basalt Rock Powder in Cementitious Materials: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Concrete and mortar production consumes significant natural resources, leading to environmental concerns and sustainability challenges. Sustainable alternatives, such as industrial byproducts, have been explored to replace clinkers and aggregates. Basalt rock powder (BRP) is a promising option due to its physical and chemical properties, including its better particle size distribution and compatibility with cementitious composites, and studies have highlighted its pozzolanic activity and its potential to improve mechanical properties (compressive strength, flexural strength, and durability). Reusing rock dust as a raw material could transform it into a mineral byproduct, benefiting the new material and reducing waste volumes. This article presents a systematic literature review on the use of BRP in construction materials, conducted using the Scopus, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Web of Science databases and following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) procedures. The search resulted in 787 articles (up to December 2024) and, after the screening process, 17 met the inclusion criteria. From the selected articles, information regarding the utilization of this waste product; its influence on mechanical properties, pozzolanic activity, and durability; and the sustainability associated with its use was compiled. The risk of bias was low as the search was comprehensive, all the papers were peer-reviewed, and all authors reviewed the papers independently. In conclusion, the studies demonstrate the potential of using BRP as a component of cementitious materials, indicating it as a possible innovative solution to the current challenges in the construction industry.

1. Introduction

Industrialization and modern society have drastically increased solid waste generation. According to Kaza et al. (2018) [1], the annual global production of urban solid waste exceeds 2 billion tons, with expectations of reaching 3.4 billion tons by 2050 due to the intensification of urbanization and the expansion of infrastructure. However, only 20% of this waste is properly recycled, while the rest is improperly disposed of, leading to critical environmental impacts such as soil pollution and air quality degradation [1].

This scenario has motivated the search for innovative waste management solutions focusing on reuse and recycling practices, especially in the construction industry, which is responsible for approximately 40% of the natural resources consumed worldwide [2]. Concrete, the most widely used construction material in the world, requires large volumes of Portland cement, water, and natural aggregates. The annual production of Portland cement is 4.1 billion tons, with projections reaching 5.8 billion tons by 2050. This implies global concrete production estimated at 12 billion tons annually, requiring approximately 9 billion tons of aggregates and 2.2 billion tons of water [3].

However, the increasing exploitation of natural aggregates, such as river sand, has caused severe environmental impacts, including the destruction of aquatic habitats, the erosion of riverbanks, and increased water turbidity [4,5]. Moreover, the scarcity of high-quality natural sand has led many countries to impose strict environmental restrictions on the extraction of these materials. This scenario creates an urgent demand for sustainable alternatives, such as basalt rock powder (BRP), a byproduct generated during the processing of rocks in quarries [6]

The use of BRP emerges as a promising alternative to meet the growing demand for sustainable practices in civil construction while offering significant benefits, such as reducing improper waste disposal and preserving natural resources. In addition to being abundant and low in cost, this material has physical properties that improve the packing density in cementitious systems, acting as a microfiller and promoting greater cohesion in the composite matrix. Its application can improve the mechanical properties and durability of concrete and mortar, aligning with the principles of the circular economy to produce more sustainable and economically viable cementitious materials [7]. Despite its potential, systematic analyses are still needed to consolidate the existing knowledge, identify gaps in the literature, and guide future research, contributing to the advancement of more effective and sustainable strategies in the construction sector.

Therefore, the objective of this research is to review the literature on the use of BRP as an additive in cementitious materials and evaluate its impact on the mechanical properties, durability, and sustainability of these materials. The aim is to identify scientific advances, knowledge gaps, and future trends in the application of this material in the construction sector.

2. Cementitious Materials

Portland cement, as the main component of concrete and modern mortars, plays a fundamental role in civil construction. Although cement has exceptional binding properties, its manufacturing process is extremely energy-intensive and results in high emissions of greenhouse gases, especially CO₂. According to Durastanti and Moretti (2024) [8], cement production significantly contributes to climate change due to the consumption of fossil fuels during the clinkerization phase.

The mining industry, which is responsible for supplying aggregates for construction, generates large volumes of waste, including rock dust. During the crushing and grinding process of basalt rocks and rocks of other geological origins, a considerable fraction of fine particles is produced. It is estimated that about 5% of the mass of aggregates produced in quarries is composed of residual dust, resulting in millions of tons of waste accumulated annually [9]. These residues, when improperly disposed of, can negatively affect the environment by obstructing the soil and contaminating water resources [10].

Studies have demonstrated that BRP can be reused as an alternative fine aggregate, improving the mechanical and physical properties of cementitious materials. The fines generated during rock processing exhibit viable characteristics for use in civil construction, such as a good particle size distribution and the potential to improve the performance of the mixtures [11].

3. Mining Industry

Mining activity has ancient origins and has played an essential role in economic and social progress, especially since the Industrial Revolution. During this period, the growing demand for raw materials drove the development of a constantly expanding global market, fostering technological innovations and the pursuit of higher-quality products [12,13].

In the early stages of this activity, mineral exploration was carried out in a rudimentary manner, without the application of advanced techniques or any specific environmental or political regulations. This lack of control led to the intensive and indiscriminate use of natural resources, responding to market demands for more refined products and larger volumes. Over time, the growing concerns of society and governments with environmental impacts forced the industry to adopt more sustainable practices and operate under stricter regulatory frameworks [14].

In recent decades, legislation aimed at the protection of natural resources has evolved significantly in various parts of the world. In this context, government agencies have taken on the role of regulators and inspectors, with the responsibility of creating guidelines, supervising licensing, and ensuring compliance with the environmental and mineral regulations that are applicable to resource exploitation [15,16].

Mining, by its nature, is composed of a sequence of interdependent processes that range from obtaining exploration licenses to extraction, processing, storage, proper waste disposal, and, finally, the introduction of products into the consumer market. Although some stages of this process generate fully usable materials, others produce mineral waste that, when not properly managed, causes significant negative environmental impacts [17].

The products resulting from mining play a fundamental role in various industrial sectors, with civil construction being one of the largest consumers of mineral inputs. Materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone, for example, are directly derived from processed natural rocks and are widely used in the production of concrete, mortar, and other essential structures for infrastructural works and buildings [18]. The physical and chemical characteristics of these minerals make them indispensable for ensuring the durability, strength, and functionality of construction materials.

Therefore, mining remains an essential activity for contemporary society, but its future development depends on a balance between the exploitation of natural resources and the adoption of sustainable practices. Improving extraction techniques, the reduction of reducing waste, and the reusinge of byproducts, such as rock dust, represent promising solutions to minimize environ-mental impacts and ensure a more responsible production chain.

4. Characteristics of Rock Dust

Aggregate is classified by the ASTM (2018) [19] as any granular material used in the construction industry; it can be of natural origin, manufactured, or recycled. Aggregates are derived from parent rock that is broken into smaller fractions through natural processes, such as weathering and abrasion, or through artificial techniques, such as mechanical grinding and crushing. The properties of aggregates, such as their mineralogical composition, petrographic characteristics, density, water absorption capacity, and strength, are mainly influenced by the parent rock. Other characteristics, such as their shape, grain size, and surface texture, are more related to the rock fragmentation process. The term natural aggregate refers to mineral aggregates extracted from natural deposits, such as gravel, sand (fine aggregate), and pebbles, as well as crushed aggregates produced from mechanically treated rocks [20].

Crushed aggregates are predominantly derived from igneous rocks (such as basalt, melaphyric rock, diabase, porphyry, gabbro, and granite), metamorphic rocks (such as amphibolite, gneiss, and serpentinite), and sedimentary rocks (such as limestones, dolomites, sandstones, and greywackes). During the extraction and mechanical processing of rocks, large quantities of waste in the form of rock dust are generated. This dust is also produced during the manufacturing of aggregates for asphalt mixtures, representing about 5% of the total mass of aggregates used for these mixtures. In a medium-sized asphalt mixing plant, it is estimated that approximately 5000 tons of residual dust is generated annually. Around the world, approximately 68 million tons of rock is processed annually by the stone industry [21,22].

During the processing of rocks, techniques such as cutting, grinding, and polishing generate a semi-liquid waste, known as sludge, which represents between 20% and 30% of the processed material. This sludge is collected in settling tanks, where the water used in the process is separated and stored before being discarded, often in landfills. The water contained in the rock slurry can penetrate the soil, carrying fine dust particles that fill voids and gaps. This significantly reduces the soil’s permeability and negatively affects both soil fertility and the groundwater level [23]. Moreover, the dry dust left behind when the water evaporates can be carried by the wind into the atmosphere, posing a threat to human health and the environment [24].

The reuse of rock dust as a raw material for the manufacture of other products can convert this material, which would normally be discarded, into a useful byproduct. This utilization would not only bring economic benefits but also help reduce the volume of waste generated, decreasing the environmental impacts caused by improper disposal. Several studies have been conducted to explore the potential of quarry fines generated during the crushing process. One study characterized these quarry fines and indicated their viability as a fine aggregate in civil construction [25]. The results demonstrated that these fines can be effectively used to improve the particle distribution and packing density of cementitious materials. This review focused mainly on BRP, which represents a substantial part of the waste stock in the mining industry, highlighting the potential for its use in civil construction while making the most of mining byproducts.

5. Materials and Methods

The systematic literature review approach was selected in this research as the methodology to achieve the proposed objective. Systematic reviews are widely recognized as a reliable method because they offer a detailed and verifiable analysis of available publications, consolidating previous studies to strengthen the body of knowledge. In addition, this approach facilitates the identification of important gaps in research and the definition of new perspectives and directions for future investigations.

The methodology adopted in this systematic review followed the PRISMA guidelines [26] with three main steps: identification, screening, and eligibility. In the identification phase, initial searches were carried out using advanced search strategies in scientific databases, employing Boolean operators and keywords related to the use of BRP in cementitious materials. In the screening phase, the identified articles were evaluated based on previously defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. This process was aided by the Rayyan tool [27], which facilitates the systematic review process, as it helps with organization, screening, and collaboration among authors. The platform allows for the automatic identification of duplicate articles for subsequent exclusion. It also allows for collaborative use, enabling all authors to participate in the screening process and evaluate the articles according to the inclusion and exclusion process. Screening can be configured to be in “blind on” mode or not. In this study, the “blind on” mode was used to minimize biases, and each author analyzed the articles independently. Abstracts and titles were analyzed to verify their relevance and adequacy with regard to the scope of the study. After individual screening, the few divergences were identified and discussed among the group at the end of the process. Finally, in the eligibility phase, the selected articles underwent a detailed analysis in which specific data related to the dimensions of interest were collected: the application of BRP, the percentage of replacement (considering the mass of both the cement and the aggregate), the resulting mechanical properties (such as compressive and flexural strength), pozzolanic activity, durability, and sustainability analyses. The extracted data were organized and systematized in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, facilitating comparative analysis and ensuring greater precision in the interpretation of the results.

The search for articles was conducted in Scopus, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Web of Science, a database from Clarivate Analytics, using the advanced search with the keywords “stone dust, stone powder*, rock dust, rock powder*, quarry dust, quarry powder*, quarry dust powder*, gravel dust, gravel powder*, mortar, cement composites.” The term “rock powder” encompasses a wide variety of materials and names, which made it challenging to search specifically for the basaltic type. BRP was not explicitly indicated in the title or keywords of the articles, making it difficult to apply search strategies based solely on Boolean operators. Each author read the abstracts in detail independently, allowing for the precise selection of those that specifically used BRP. In cases of inconsistencies, the results were discussed and evaluated together, ensuring a more robust and careful selection process. The search covered works with stone dust and cementitious materials in the title, abstract, or keywords and, for this, it used the Boolean operators as shown in

Table 1. Search terms used in the advanced search feature.

Advanced Search Keyword
TS = (((stone dust) OR (stone powder*) OR (rock dust) OR (rock powder*) OR (quarry dust) OR (quarry powder*) OR (quarry dust powder*) OR (gravel dust) OR (gravel powder*)) AND ((mortar) OR (cement composites)))

. The research did not have a defined initial period; all articles published prior to December 2024 were considered.

The authors also declare that they used the QuillBot tool [28] to assist in the translation of this text into the English language and refine the writing style. After translation, necessary edits and adjustments were made by the authors, who are fully responsible for the content.

6. Results

As a result of the search, in the “identification” phase, 787 published papers were obtained. In this phase, 143 duplicates and 33 literature review articles were also excluded. A systematic literature review is a secondary study that uses primary studies as a data source, resulting in 611 articles in this phase. The 611 articles were then critically evaluated in the “screening” phase. In this phase, 162 articles were excluded because they did not use BRP applied to cementitious materials; 425 articles were excluded because they used BRP but from a source other than basalt; and five articles were excluded because the full texts could not be found. As a result of this phase, 19 articles passed to the “eligibility” phase. In the “eligibility” phase, the articles were read to determine whether they fell within the scope of the intended review. Finally, two articles did not specify the use of BRP, so 17 articles were included in this systematic literature review. This can be better observed in Figure 1, which shows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) flowchart used in the article selection process. All the selected articles used BRP in combination with cementitious materials, analyzing their characteristics and properties.

All authors participated in all phases of the process, reviewed the papers independently, and maintained contact with each other, limiting the risk of bias. In addition, the selected databases contain peer-reviewed papers, further limiting the risk of bias.

7. Discussion

Table 2. Summary of articles according to the application, particle size, and mechanical resistance after 28 days of curing.

Author(s)	Composite	Application	Average Particle Size (μm) and Fineness Modulus (FM)	Replacement (%) of Cement or Aggregate	Compressive Strength (MPa) *
[29]	Mortar	Portland cement	-	0%	≈54.00
				5%	≈44.50
				10%	≈42.00
		Fine aggregates	-	0%	≈54.00
				20%	≈43.00
				30%	≈46.00
[30]	Mortar	Fine aggregates	Average diameter < 2 mm; particle size ranging from 0.4 to 235 µm	0%	≈36.00
				25%	≈41.00
				50%	≈42.00
				75%	≈20.00
[31]	Concrete	Fine aggregates	Average diameter 20 µm; basalt powder particle ranging from 0.5 to 200 µm	0%	≈32.00
				10%	≈72.00
				20%	≈75.00
				30%	≈80.00
[32]	Mortar	Portland cement	Particle size ranging from 0.2 to ~45 µm	0%	48.90
				30%	36.50
[33]	Mortar	Fine aggregates	Particle size ranging from 0.4 to 200 µm	0%	62.89
				25%	64.67
				50%	53.20
				75%	51.20
[34]	Mortar	Fine aggregates	Average particle size ≤ 75 µm	0%	≈48.00
				20%	≈47.00
				30%	≈46.00
[35]	Concrete	Filler	Particle size range 1–40 µm	0%	≈2.50
				10%	≈7.00
				15%	≈7.50
				20%	≈8.00
				50%	≈6.50
[36]	Blended cementitious composite	Quarry dust with crushed seashells as fine aggregates	Particle size range 4.75 mm–0.075 mm; FM 3.6 ± 0.1	0%	≈60.00
				20%	≈63.00
				30%	≈68.00
				40%	≈70.00
				50%	≈72.00
				60%	≈71.00

* The symbol ≈ indicates that the value is approximate, as it was obtained by reading a graph.

highlights some of the documented applications of BRP in cementitious materials. It focuses on the generation of mortar and concrete and the amount of material that was added or replaced. The reviewed articles examined the influence of incorporation rates from 5% to 75% on mechanical parameters, especially compressive strength, relative either to the mass of cement or to the mass of sand. The results are highly heterogeneous, with some studies reporting decreases, while others found increases in compressive strength.

7.1. Effect on Mechanical Resistance

The substitution of conventional aggregates with basalt powder and other mineral waste has shown varied effects on the mechanical strength of cementitious composites, particularly their compressive and flexural strength. Several studies have demonstrated that the partial replacement of conventional aggregates with mineral powders can improve mechanical performance under specific conditions.

Lentz and Antunes (2021) [37] observed that the partial replacement of sand with basalt powder with an average diameter of 8.38 μm and fineness modulus (FM) of 0.3 mm in adhesive mortars resulted in significant improvements in the tensile strength and water absorption through capillarity, especially in proportions of up to 5% replacement. The authors attributed these gains to the densification of the cementitious matrix promoted by basalt powder acting as a filling material. The low porosity of BRP can be considered an advantage over other rock powders. An example is tuffeau powder, which is composed of fine, porous grains with a high water demand and high retention capacity [38]. Similar results were observed by Rodrigues da Silva et al. (2022) [39], who recorded an increase in the flexural strength of cementitious plates pressed with the addition of basalt powder as a partial replacement for sand.

Dobiszewska and Beycioğlu (2020) [31] identified that replacing 30% of the quartz sand in concrete with basalt powder can increase the concrete’s compressive strength by up to 25%. The powder, used as a fine aggregate (average diameter of 20 µm and particle size range from 0.5 to 200 µm) (Table 2), acts as a microfiller, improving the cohesiveness and density of the cement matrix, consequently increasing the compaction efficiency and compressive strength. Matos et al. (2020) [40], examining ultra-high-performance cement (UHPC) pastes, discovered that adding basalt powder did not result in significant variations in compressive strength when compared to other fillers such as quartz and limestone. This lack of impact was attributed to the absence of pozzolanic activity in basalt, restricting its function to the physical filling of voids. In fact, the granulometry of basalt powder plays a crucial role: finer particles favor the packing of the cementitious matrix, increasing its density and mechanical strength. However, in the specific case of UHPC, as shown by Matos et al. (2020) [40], this physical characteristic of basalt powder was not enough to differentiate its performance from that of other similar materials. The authors acknowledged that this behavior is not commonly observed in other studies, such as those by Schankoski et al. (2019) [41] and Labbaci et al. (2017) [42].

Research by Zhang, Sun, and Li (2011) [43] analyzed the influence of stone dust on the compressive and flexural strength of cementitious mortars, highlighting that the addition of up to 15% particles of size <75 µm significantly improved the performance at 7 and 28 days due to the filling effect and the higher density of the matrix. However, excessive amounts of stone dust resulted in a decline in performance at 28 days, indicating the existence of an optimal limit for its incorporation. This inferior performance may be attributed to excessive particle compaction. The morphology of quarry dust particles results in an elevated surface area-to-volume ratio and interstitial voids near the surface, creating a dense, impervious outer layer. This layer may limit proper hydration in nucleus zones, leaving internal pores unfilled and modifying the hydration in these areas, consequently reducing the compressive strength. Since quarry dust does not participate in the formation of secondary hydrated calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), it is essential for the densification of the paste. As a result, no calcium carboaluminate forms during the hydration of the cement particles, which reduces the increase in mechanical resistance [29].

In a study by Abdellahi and Hejazi (2015) [35], the combined effect of stone powder and glass and polypropylene fibers was investigated. The authors observed significant improvements in flexural strength due to the addition of fibers, while the stone powder contributed to an increase in compressive strength. In addition to experimentally evaluating the materials and manufacturing processes, their study presented a mathematical model capable of predicting the mechanical behavior based on the characteristics of the fibers. However, the main focus was on the mechanical properties, without directly addressing aspects of sustainability.

On the other hand, Ye et al. (2023) [44] explored the multi-performance optimization of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) using basalt powder, fly ash, and slag. Their study demonstrated that the ideal combination of these materials results in significant improvements in compressive strength, flowability, and drying shrinkage control, especially with optimized dosages. The developed model demonstrates the potential of basalt powder to interact with other materials to maximize the composite’s performance while minimizing the consumption of Portland cement. Similarly, Senguttuvan et al. (2025) [45] used quarry rock dust as a fine aggregate, noting that it resulted in reduced superplasticizer (SP) requirements and enhanced compressive strength. The authors also acknowledged that studies on the use of rock dust as a binding agent are still quite limited.

Furthermore, Tammam, Uysal, and Canpolat (2022) [33] investigated the incorporation of mineral powders of limestone, marble, and basalt into fly ash-based geopolymers. Their results showed that the addition of basalt powder contributed to the physical and mechanical performance of the mortars, especially regarding their compressive strength and abrasion resistance. In this context, after 28 days of curing, the composites with a 25% replacement amount of rock powder in the fine aggregate, with particle sizes between 0.4 and 200 µm, showed improved mechanical resistance. This can be explained by the fact that the dosage of fine particles filled the voids, reducing the porosity in the matrix. Their study also examined the behavior of these mortars at high temperatures, concluding that the geopolymers containing mineral powders exhibited excellent fire resistance.

Finally, curing conditions also play an important role in the development of mechanical strength. Temperature and humidity directly affect the hydrated reactions of cement. Aral and Cihan (2019) and Cihan and Aral (2022) [29,34] revealed that the strength of basalt powder can be influenced by extreme environmental conditions. In investigations under freeze–thaw cycles, the authors identified a reduction in compressive strength as the proportion of sand replacement with stone powder increased, especially after 10 cycles. On the other hand, the flexural strength showed a slight improvement with 20% and 30% substitutions, suggesting that the contribution of basalt powder to tensile efforts is less sensitive to thermal variations.

Thus, the incorporation of basalt powder into cementitious composites has a direct impact on the composites’ mechanical performance, particularly their compressive and flexural strength. When used as a partial replacement for sand, basalt powder achieves compressive strength gains of up to 90.5% at a 30% replacement rate. Similarly, when used as a replacement for cement, it produces strength improvements of approximately 26% at a 50% replacement rate. Although partial replacement often improves the matrix density and cohesion, the results vary significantly depending on the particle size, fineness modulus (FM), dosage, interaction with other materials, and curing conditions. These findings highlight the need for further research into basalt powder as a partial replacement material in civil construction and the development of high-performance and more sustainable building materials.

7.2. Pozzolanic Activity and Durability

The pozzolanic activity of materials such as basalt and other mineral residues has been widely studied, as it directly influences the long-term durability and strength of cementitious composites. The chemical composition, granulometry, and amorphous content of the materials play fundamental roles in this aspect [32].

Yu, Zhou, and Dong (2020) [32] investigated the pozzolanic activity of basalt and pumice stone, emphasizing the high pozzolanic potential of basalt due to its significant content of silica, alumina, and amorphous iron. This reactivity facilitates the formation of secondary hydration products, such as C-S-H, which enhance the composite’s strength and reduce its porosity. To quantify this reactivity, the authors introduced the concept of the Pozzolanic Activity Component, correlating chemical composition and amorphous content with the pozzolanic activity index. In contrast, Lentz and Antunes (2021) [37] reported that the basalt powder studied exhibited negligible pozzolanic activity, classifying it as an inert material. This divergence probably arises from differences in the geological origin and processing of the basalt, including variations in fineness and impurity levels.

The durability of materials containing basalt powder was also highlighted by Labbaci et al. (2017) [42], who conducted a mineralogical and chemical characterization of volcanic ash, including basalt, and emphasized its high pozzolanic activity. Their study demonstrated that the addition of these materials to mortars significantly improved the mortars’ compressive strength and durability in aggressive environments, such as attack from sulfuric, hydrochloric, nitric, and acetic acids. This resistance to chemical attacks can be explained by the properties of the materials used, as highly porous aggregates may allow deeper penetration of external agents into the mortar, potentially leading to more severe degradation of the cementitious matrix [46]. The low porosity of BRP thus ensures its suitability for use in applications where high durability is required.

Tammam, Uysal, and Canpolat (2022) [47] analyzed the use of quarry waste, such as basalt, in the production of geopolymers, highlighting significant improvements in durability properties. Their study revealed that the addition of mineral powders promotes greater resistance in aggressive environments and reduces water absorption, which reinforces the potential of basalt for applications in sustainable and long-lasting cementitious solutions.

Zhang, Sun, and Li (2011) [43] identified that stone dust, especially microfine particles smaller than 10 µm, has a “nucleation core” effect, which improves the hydration of cement. This phenomenon is observed due to the higher specific surface area of the fine particles, which stimulate the formation of hydrated products and contribute to the densification of the microstructure.

Complementarily, Dobiszewska and Beycioğlu (2020) [31] identified that the incorporation of basalt powder into concrete reduced its porosity and water absorption, resulting in a denser and more durable microstructure. These results corroborate the idea that basalt, even without high pozzolanic activity, can improve the durability of concrete through its physical filling capacity and refinement of the microstructure.

While some research affirms the pozzolanic reactivity of basalt, particularly when it contains large amounts of reactive oxides and amorphous phases, other studies point to the importance of the processing conditions, particle fineness, and mineralogical origin, suggesting that basalt behaves mostly inertly. However, the physical contributions of basalt powder, such as matrix densification and pore refinement, continuously improve the durability of cementitious composites, even in cases when the basalt powder’s pozzolanic activity is minimal.

7.3. Sustainability

Sustainability is a cross-cutting theme in studies on the use of basalt powder and other mineral waste in cementitious materials. The use of these materials contributes to a reduction in natural resource consumption and mitigation of the environmental impact of civil construction.

Aral and Cihan (2019) and Lentz and Antunes (2021) [34,37] highlighted the substitution of natural aggregates with quarry waste as a viable solution to reduce the exploitation of finite resources and minimize environmental impacts. Similarly, Tammam et al. (2023) and Ye et al. (2024) [30,36] expanded this approach by exploring the use of recycled aggregates and filler waste in geopolymeric composites, with the aim of reducing the dependence on Portland cement and its associated CO₂ emissions.

On the other hand, Pereira et al. (2012) [48] explored the combination of stone powder with PET waste, demonstrating the potential of the construction industry to promote the circular economy by reusing discarded polymeric materials. Although the mechanical performance was affected at high PET levels, the study offered important considerations for sustainable practices. On the same subject, Yee et al. (2025) [49] proposed concrete in which aggregates were partially replaced with crushed seashells and quarry dust. At mid-range replacement levels (30–50%), this approach reduced carbon emissions by up to 57%.

Furthermore, Hefni (2022) [50] focused on the application of basalt powder in mortars for archeological restoration, highlighting that the use of this waste not only preserves historical heritage but also contributes to sustainability through its compatibility with natural materials.

Finally, Labbaci et al. (2017) [42] demonstrated that the use of volcanic powders not only improves the durability of mortars but also extends the lifespan of structures, reducing costs for maintenance and material replacement.

The use of basalt powder and mineral residues in cementitious materials offers a sustainable alternative for civil construction, reducing the consumption of natural resources, reducing carbon emissions, and promoting the circular economy. In addition to improving the durability of structures, these practices align the sector with the demands for innovation and environmental preservation.

Compared to other supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), such as fly ash and agro-industrial ash, BRP offers the advantages of not requiring thermal combustion for its production, reducing energy consumption and, consequently, carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions. These characteristics make basalt rock not only a more sustainable alternative, but also technically advantageous, especially in regions without access to conventional SCMs. Its integration into construction materials meets environmental objectives, reinforcing its role in the future of sustainable construction.

7.4. Cost and Embodied Carbon Footprint

The eco-efficiency (sustainability potential) of using rock powder waste was assessed in Matos et al. (2020) [40], who assessed the work rates generated by fine aggregates in their study, comparing quartz, limestone, diabase, granite, and basalt. According to their results, the work rate for quartz is 24 kWh/ton while, for the other materials, approximately half that value—ranging from 14 to 18 kWh/ton—is needed. Thus, the energy required to grind 1 kg of limestone, diabase, granite, or basalt is 50%, 75%, 58%, or 75% less than that for quartz, respectively.

Although the other studies did not assess this eco-efficiency, two studies that analyzed the use of quarry waste and quarry dust in general, materials similar to basalt, addressed this issue. Pakkiyachandran and Sathiparan (2025) [46] conducted a life cycle assessment (LCA) to study the embodied energy (MJ) and carbon emissions (KgCO₂) per cement masonry block with total replacement of sand by quarry waste and quarry dust. The LCA was performed for the manufacture and transportation of cement, aggregate (sand), water, and waste. The authors observed that quarry waste and quarry dust reduced the embodied energy by 5.2% and 18.2% compared to river sand. Regarding CO₂ emissions during the production of a masonry block unit, the authors concluded that mortar with river sand has a value of 0.39 kgCO₂/MPa while, with quarry waste and quarry dust, the values are 2.70 and 6.28 kgCO₂/MPa. Due to the significantly lower mechanical compression resistance when quarry dust is used, despite the LCA finding lower embodied energy (18.2%), the correlation of CO₂ emissions with mechanical resistance in this study demonstrates the need for optimizations, such as lower sand replacement values or applications aimed at creating lightweight air-dry mortar (with a dry density of <22%).

In contrast to the previous authors, Ma et al. (2024) [51] evaluated the price per unit of mechanical compression (CNY/MPa) and CO₂ emissions (kg/m³) for different proportions of replacement of cement by stone powder (0, 10, 20, and 30%) to prepare eco-friendly ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC). First, the greater the replacement rate of sand, the lower the amount of CO₂ emitted per m² of UHPC, decreasing from 668 kg/m³ to 448 kg/m³ with 30% replacement. Furthermore, the authors observed that 30% replacement reduced the price per unit of mechanical compression from approximately 7.25 CNY/MPa to 5.70 CNY/MPa, with 10% being the optimal composition (4.86 CNY/MPa). Thus, replacing cement appears to be a more promising alternative to reduce costs and CO₂ emissions due to the greater impact of cement on both of these factors in concrete.

7.5. Future Perspectives

Future research could deepen the analysis of BRP in optimized composites by combining it with other supplementary cementitious materials to maximize mechanical performance and durability. Materials such as bamboo leaf ash [52], lubricating oil re-refining ash [53], and other supplementary cementitious materials that have shown promising results in recent studies could be used in combination with BRP as partial cement replacements. These materials may be employed in ternary binders, which are increasingly being identified as a key strategy for achieving a more sustainable and environmentally friendly future in cement-based construction [54].

Still within this perspective of cement replacement, the application of BRP could also be expanded to geopolymers and to uses under extreme environmental conditions, such as exposure to harsh climates, climate change effects, and acid rain [55].

In addition, the development of prefabricated elements and modular structures with basalt powder could offer economical and sustainable solutions for civil construction. It is important that such studies focus on integrated assessments that address the technical, economic, and environmental dimensions, considering the diverse regional contexts and needs of the construction sector.

8. Conclusions

The incorporation of BRP into cementitious materials has great potential to increase the sustainability of civil construction and reduce the generated waste associated with mining. This systematic review summarized studies that analyzed BRP as an alternative aggregate and microfiller designed to optimize the density of the cementitious matrix and, in some cases, its mechanical properties and durability. However, the variability in the observed mechanical strength and pozzolanic activity values also indicates the need for more consistent and standardized research methodologies, as well as more research on optimizing the incorporation of this material under ideal conditions.

In addition, the use of this waste is aligned with the principles of the circular economy, reducing the use of finite natural resources and mitigating the environmental impacts associated with sand extraction and Portland cement production. Although its advantages are evident, there are still gaps, especially with regard to the long-term behavior of composites and the interaction of BRP with other industrial waste.

Among the related challenges, it is important to ensure that BRP maintains its chemical and physical properties, as these vary according to the powder’s geological origin and processing method. There are also gaps in the analysis of the long-term performance of cementitious composites containing basalt powder. Long-term tests that simulate degradation under real conditions are important to confirm the durability of the material and ensure its viability in structural applications. In addition, there are challenges in terms of standardization, since there are no technical standards with guidelines for the incorporation of this material in cementitious mixtures.

Therefore, the use of BRP is a clear example of how industrial waste can be transformed into a resource, promoting a more sustainable future for the construction industry. However, it is of utmost importance to have a multidisciplinary approach focused on the long-term, considering not only the immediate benefits but also possible impacts. This is an opportunity for the construction industry to increasingly stand out in the field of responsible practices while meeting growing demands and balancing progress and sustainability.