Sacrificial Thermally Sprayed Aluminium Coatings for Marine Environments: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Sacrificial Coatings
- -
- Low self-corrosion rate.
- -
- Current output enabling the polarisation of the steel in the protective regime, usually considered to be between −0.8 and −1.1 V (Ag/AgCl/seawater) [6]. Values more negative than −1.1 V are generally not recommended to avoid excessive hydrogen generation.
- -
- Barrier properties combined with cathodic protection.
- -
- Newly applied coatings can be handled immediately (i.e., no drying time) [7].
- -
- Spraying and repair can be performed on-site.
- -
- More economical over the lifetime than organic coatings (total life cycle cost).
- -
- Good resistance to mechanical damage.
3. Thermal Spraying
3.1. Electric Arc Spraying
3.2. Wire Flame Spraying
3.3. Cold Spraying
4. Laboratory Tests
4.1. Effect of the Spraying Method and Its Parameters
4.2. Effect of Coating Thickness
4.3. Effect of Coating Composition
Al/Al2O3 Composites
4.4. Effect of Sealing
4.5. Effect of Damage
4.6. Effect of Temperature
4.7. Effect of Oxygen
4.8. Effect of the Solution Chemistry
5. Long-Term Field Studies
6. Laboratory Corrosion Testing Methods
7. In-Service Performance of Al Coatings
8. Summary and Future Outlook
- The determination of minimal salinity of water needed for the TSA to work effectively, especially if TSA contains defects.
- The performance of damaged TSA coatings in cold seawater, especially when not in conjunction with external CP.
- The suitability of using TSA coatings in splash zones.
- The suitability of using TSA coatings for the protection of high strength steels where hydrogen embrittlement is a concern.
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Standard | Min. Adhesion Strength [MPa] |
---|---|
ISO 2063 | 4.5 |
SSPC-CS 23.00/AWS C2.23M/NACE No. 12 | 6.89 |
NORSOK M-501 | 9 |
AWS C2.18-93 | 10.3 |
Coating Consumable | Spraying Method | Substrate | Electrolyte | Temperature [°C] | Duration | Method | Corrosion Rate [µm/year] | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al 99.5% | Electric arc | 22%Cr Duplex stainless steel | Artificial seawater | 18 ± 2 80 ± 2 | 25 days | Linear polarisation resistance (LPR) | 5–8 6–7 | [28] | |
Al 99.5% | Electric arc | glass | Artificial seawater | 25 50 100 | 22 days | LPR | 0.2–1.5 | [29] | |
Al 99.6% AlMg5% | Electric arc and flame | Steel | Natural seawater | 6.5–11 | 11 months | LPR Polarisation curves | ~3.3 (Al arc) ~2.4 (AlMg arc) 2.0–2.7 (Al flame) ~3.2 (AlMg flame) | [19] | |
Al 99.5% | Electric arc | Carbon Steel | Natural Seawater | 10 ± 2 | 30 days | Polarisation resistance Polarisation curves | 20 | [30] | |
Al 99.0% | Electric arc | Mild steel | 3.5% NaCl | Room | 44 days | Tafel Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) | Not given | [31] | |
AlMg5% | Electric arc | Carbon steel | Natural seawater | 20 50 70 90 | (internal temp) | 280 days 280 days 60 days 280 days | Polarisation curves LPR | ~1.0 ~2.2 ~4.0 ~4.8 | [32] |
Al 1100 | Electric arc | Carbon steel | Natural seawater | 10 50 70 | (1)230 days (2)250 days | LPR (1) Polarisation curves (2) | 7 and 5 6 and 5 16 and 8 | [33] | |
Al 99.7% | Electric arc | Stainless steel (SS) | Natural seawater | Room | 24 hours | Polarisation curves | Not given | [24] | |
Al 99.5% | Electric arc | Carbon steel | Artificial seawater | 25 ± 1 | 32 days | LPR | Not given | [34] | |
Al 99.5% | Electric arc | Carbon steel | Artificial seawater | 26 ± 1 | 90 days | LPR | <20 | [35] | |
Al 99.99% | Electric arc | Mild steel | 3.5% NaCl | 26–28 | 264 h | Polarisation curves EIS | Not given | [36] | |
Al Al–Al2O3 | Electric arc and Plasma spray | SS 316L | Artificial seawater | 30 | 30 days | Polarisation curves EIS | Not given | [37] | |
Commercially available Al powder | Cold spray | Mild steel | 3.5% NaCl | Room temperature | 96 h | Polarisation curves EIS | Not given | [23] | |
Al–Al2O3 | Cold spray | Mild carbon steel | 0.01%NaCl 0.1%NaCl 1%NaCl | 80 | 21 days | Mass change | ~0.04 ~0.05 ~0.06 | [38] | |
Al 99.5% | Electric arc | Carbon steel | Artificial seawater | 5 ~101.5 | 50 days | LPR | 5–7 | [39] | |
Al 99.5% | Electric arc | SS404L | 3.5% NaCl | Ambient temperature | 0 h 500 h 1000 h | Tafel analysis | 17.1 0.1 0.2 | [40] |
Standard | Element (wt%) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UNS | Common Name | Al | Cr | Cu | Fe | Mn | Si | Ti | Zn | Mg | Other | |
AWS C2.25 | A91100 | Al (1100) | 99.00 min | - | 0.05–0.20 | 0.95 (Fe and Si) | 0.05 | 0.95 (Fe and Si) | - | 0.10 | - | - |
A91350 | Al (1350) | 99.50 min | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.40 | 0.01 | 0.10 | 0.02 (V+Ti) | - | GaB (0.03-0.05) | ||
A95356 | Al–5Mg | Rem. | 0.05–0.20 | 0.10 | 0.40 | 0.05–0.20 | 0.25 | 0.06–0.20 | 0.10 | 4.5–5.5 | ||
A71001 | Al MMC | 88 min | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Al2O3 (8–12) | ||
ISO 14919 | Not provided | Al 99.5 | 99.5 min | - | ≤0.02 | ≤0.40 | ≤0.02 | ≤0.25 | ≤0.02 | ≤0.07 | ≤0.03 | |
Al–5Mg | Rem. | 0.05–0.2 | ≤0.10 | ≤0.40 | 0.05–0.20 | ≤0.30 | 0.06–0.20 | ≤0.10 | 4.5–5.6 | ≤0.15 |
Name/Organisation | Exposure Time | Exposure Type | Coating Material | Coating Thickness | Spraying Method | Sealed | Holiday/Artificial Defect | Findings | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BISRA | 12 years | Atmospheric (rural, coastal industrial) Seawater immersion | Zn, Al, Cd, Pb, Sb | 3–4 mils | Thermal Spraying (type not specified), electroplating, and hot dipping. | No | No | Life of the coating roughly proportional to the coating thickness regardless of the application process. | [83,84] |
LaQue Centre | 12 years extended to 34 years | Atmospheric (marine and industrial) | Powders of various compositions of Zn, Al, Zn and Al Zn and Al and Mg Mn, Al and Mg | 0.08–0.2 mm | Powder flame spraying | No | No | Al-based coatings performed better than Zn-based ones in industrial atmospheres but worse in marine atmospheres after 12 years exposure. There were more resistant coatings with high Al content than Zn after longer (34 years) exposure in marine atmosphere. | [83,85] |
AWS | 19 years | Atmospheric and immersion | Zn, Al | 80–460 µm | Wire flame spraying | Wash primer, clear vinyl, Al-pigmented vinyl, Chlorinated rubber | No | 80–150 um TSA coatings with and without sealing protect steel in seawater and in atmosphere. The coating that gave the best performance was a thin TSA. It exhibited the lowest level of pitting and blistering. | [27] |
JACC | 18 years | Atmospheric, immersion | Zn, Al, Zn–Al | 175 ± 25 µm (flame and arc-sprayed coating) 400 ± 25 µm only for Al (arc-sprayed) | Wire flame and electric arc spraying | Epoxy | No | TSA not effective in splash zone when there is a damage in the coating. | [83] |
PATINA project | 3.5 years | Atmospheric | Al, Zn, Zn–Al | 150 µm | Flame spraying (type not specified) | No | Yes | TSA only effective in atmosphere with high chloride content. | [79] |
the Corrosion Advice Bureau of BISRA | 10 years | Atmospheric, immersion | Al, Zn, Zn and Al | 50,100,150 µm | Wire and powder spraying (exact method not specified) | Variety of paints and topcoats | Yes | Painted TSA can provide 10 years life without maintenance under atmospheric exposures. When damaged, rusting of the substrate occurs under all conditions. Unpainted Zn coatings failed under immersion conditions, whereas unpainted Al coatings provided protection. | [86] |
US Army, Buzzard’s Bay | 20 years | Atmospheric, splash, tidal, immersion in natural seawater | Various organic and metallic coatings | 150 µm (TSA without sealant) 80–90 µm sealed | Wire flame spraying | Wash coati primer and Al vinyl | Yes | TSA with sealant was the best performing coating among 24 systems tested Unsealed Al coating failed in atmospheric and splash zones (red rust present). | [62,87] |
US Army, La Costa Island | 21 years, results reported after 10 years | Atmospheric, splash, tidal, immersion in natural seawater | Various organic and metallic coatings | 150 µm | Wire flame spraying | Vinyl topcoat | Yes | The most severe corrosion in the splash zone. | [87,88] |
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Syrek-Gerstenkorn, B.; Paul, S.; Davenport, A.J. Sacrificial Thermally Sprayed Aluminium Coatings for Marine Environments: A Review. Coatings 2020, 10, 267. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings10030267
Syrek-Gerstenkorn B, Paul S, Davenport AJ. Sacrificial Thermally Sprayed Aluminium Coatings for Marine Environments: A Review. Coatings. 2020; 10(3):267. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings10030267
Chicago/Turabian StyleSyrek-Gerstenkorn, Berenika, Shiladitya Paul, and Alison J Davenport. 2020. "Sacrificial Thermally Sprayed Aluminium Coatings for Marine Environments: A Review" Coatings 10, no. 3: 267. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings10030267