Smart and Rapid Design of Nanophotonic Structures by an Adaptive and Regularized Deep Neural Network
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- 1.
- To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time V is modeled by a DNN model as an optical property. V is crucial for reducing device footprints and having tight on-chip integration.
- 2.
- The employment of CNN empowers the algorithm through its unique advantage on recognizing complex patterns and extracting hidden information from images.
- 3.
- The use of learning rate scheduling (also known as adaptive learning rate) can effectively smoothen and speed up the convergence of the training process.
- 4.
- The use of L2 regularization can effectively reduce overfitting and improve the generalizibility of LRS-RCNN.
- 5.
- It has a high-dimensional design parameter (DA) space with over 160 degrees of freedom. A large DA space is a prerequisite for real-world design problems.
2. Methods
2.1. DNN Structure and Architecture
2.2. Algorithm Description and Approach
- 1.
- Adaptive learning rate through learning rate scheduling and, thus, the “LRS” in LRS-RCNN. Adaptive learning rate works by dynamically reducing the learning rate when training slows down or a metric hits a plateau and has the power of gaining robustness against gradient noise and inducing a smoother and faster convergence [1,2,48]. While there is a multitude of learning rate schedulers available, Reduce-On-Plateau was selected in this work due to its stable and consistent behavior according to our experiments.
- 2.
- L2 Regularization and, thus, the “R” after the hyphen in LRS-RCNN. When there is a complex model with a large number of features in the dataset, L2 regularization can be used in backpropagation to address the common overfitting issue and boost generalizibility [1,2]. It works by adding a squared penalty term associated with weight parameters (W) to the loss function, as shown in Equation (1), where controls how much one would like to penalize large weights. The Error term corresponds to MSE in Equation (2).
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Nanobeam
min | min | Epochs | Training Time | Prediction Time | Speedup (vs. FDTD) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nanobeam | Q | 0.000157% | 0.0148% | 0.00734 | 0.00735 | 700 | 9 min | s | |
V | 0.00102% | 0.141% | |||||||
L3 | Q | 0.00105% | 0.0112% | 0.000360 | 0.000365 | 300 | 5 min | s | |
V | 0.00317% | 0.0158% | 0.00252 | 0.00282 | |||||
Gou et al. [22] | 0.540% | N/A | 0.000300 | N/A | 1000 | 143 s | s | ||
Christensen et al. [14] | 0.470% | 0.530% | N/A | 0.006 | 400 | 3 min | 0.02 s | N/A | |
Asano et al. [10] | 16.0% | 19.0% | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | ||
Chugh et al. [15] | 1.00% | N/A | N/A | 0.00808 | 4000 | N/A | N/A | N/A | |
Singh et al. [13] | N/A | N/A | 0.00810 | 0.014 | 500 | 45 min | N/A | N/A | |
Chen et al. [23] | 0.700% | 5.00% | N/A | N/A | 110 | N/A | N/A | N/A | |
Wiecha et al. [18] | N/A | 5.78% | N/A | N/A | 100 | 200 min | s | ||
Tahersima et al. [51] | N/A | N/A | N/A | 0.130 | 10,000 | 22 min | N/A | N/A |
3.2. L3 Nanocavity
3.3. On the Importance of Adaptiveness and Regularization
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Hyperparameter | Value | Hyperparameter | Value |
---|---|---|---|
Conv1 | 20 3 × 3 kernels + 1 × 2 AP | FC1 | 240 neurons |
Conv2 | 40 3 × 3 kernels + 1 × 2 AP | FC2 | 120 neurons |
Paddings | 1 | FC3 | 50 neurons |
Activation function | ReLU | No. of Epochs | 700 |
Training batch size | 64 | Test batch size | 100 |
Optimizer | SGD | Initial learning rate | 0.01 |
Momentum | 0.5 | L2 regularization | 0.001 |
Nanobeam’s , | (1, 13) | Learning rate scheduler | ReduceOnPlateau |
L3’s , | (5, 12) | Loss function |
Nanobeam DAs | Nanobeam OPs | L3 DAs | L3 OPs |
---|---|---|---|
Q-factor | x locations | Q-factor | |
Modal volume V | y locations | Modal volume V | |
x locations | r | ||
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Li, R.; Gu, X.; Shen, Y.; Li, K.; Li, Z.; Zhang, Z. Smart and Rapid Design of Nanophotonic Structures by an Adaptive and Regularized Deep Neural Network. Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 1372. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12081372
Li R, Gu X, Shen Y, Li K, Li Z, Zhang Z. Smart and Rapid Design of Nanophotonic Structures by an Adaptive and Regularized Deep Neural Network. Nanomaterials. 2022; 12(8):1372. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12081372
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Renjie, Xiaozhe Gu, Yuanwen Shen, Ke Li, Zhen Li, and Zhaoyu Zhang. 2022. "Smart and Rapid Design of Nanophotonic Structures by an Adaptive and Regularized Deep Neural Network" Nanomaterials 12, no. 8: 1372. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12081372