Photosensitizers Mediated Photodynamic Inactivation against Fungi
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Mechanism of Photosensitizer Action against Fungi
3. Phenothiazine Photosensitizers
3.1. Methylene Blue
3.2. Toluidine Blue O and New Toluidine Blue O
3.3. Combination of Phenothiazines with Antifungals
3.4. Combinations of Phenothiazines with Nanoparticles
4. Xanthenes
4.1. Erythrosine
4.2. Rose Bengal
5. Curcumin
6. Porphyrins
6.1. First Generation Photosensitizers
6.1.1. Porfimer Sodium
6.1.2. Photogem®
6.1.3. Hematoporphyrin Monomethyl Ether
6.2. Second Generation Photosensitizers
6.2.1. 5-Aminolevulinic Acid and Its Derivatives
6.2.2. Others
6.3. Porphyrin Containing Materials
7. Chlorins
8. Porphyrazines and Phthalocyanines
9. Other Photosensitizers
10. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reference | Photosensitizer | Incubation Time | Irradiation Wavelength (nm) | Light Dose (J/cm2) | Antimicrobial Activity Against | Reported Fungal Growth Inhibition |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[28] | 1 | 1 min | 660 | 245 | C. albicans | No decrease in number of CFUs; proteinase activity lowered |
[35] | 1 | 30 min | 660 | 6; 15 | C. albicans (in G. mellonella) | 1 PACT significantly increased the survival rate |
[36] | 1, 2 and 5 | - | 570–670 | 15 | F. keratoplasticum, F. moniliforme | 1, 2 and 5 in G. mellonella-infected larvae reduced the survival of F.k. microconidia to 38, 57, and 2%, respectively. The survival levels of F.m. microconidia in infected larvae were 69, 37, and 21%, respectively. |
[45] | 1, 9 | - | 660; 532 | 21.42 | C. albicans | max ca. 6 log red. (RB)* max ca. 6 log red. (PD) * *estimated data Gene expression studies |
[46] | 1 | 10 min | 660 | 10; 20; 30 | C. albicans | max. 53% red. (plankton) max. 74% red. (biofilm) |
[47] | 1 | 10 min | 662 | 129.6; 162; 194.4 | C. albicans | Complete eradication (lag phase cells) max. 2 log red. (stationary phase cells) |
[48] | 1 | 10 min | 660 | 9; 27 | C. albicans | In vivo experiment (clinical trial) Slightly increased sensitivity to fluconazole in in vitro tests |
[49] | 1 | 1–20 min | 640 | 4.68 | C. albicans | max ca. 1.5 log red.* *estimated data |
[50] | 1 and 10 | 30 min | 600–650 (1); 490–540 (10) | 10 to 60 | C. albicans; T. mentagrophytes | C.a./1 max. >95% of inhibition C.a./10 max. >98% of inhibition T.m./10 max. > 98% of inhibition |
[51] | 1 | 1 h | 660 | 15; 23; 57 | C. albicans | max. 40.28% red. (biofilm) |
[52] | 1 | 5 min | 660 | 26.3 | C. albicans | 0.49 log red. (serotype A) 2.34 log red. (serotype B) |
[53] | 3, 3 with verapamil or sodium azide | 5 min | 684 (1), 660 (3) | 28 | C. albicans | increasing calcium levels decreased the 3-mediated PACT efficiency; Verapamil decreased 1-mediated PACT effectiveness. |
[54] | 1 (with glucose) | 30 min | 660 | 23; 46; 69; 92; 115; 138 | C. albicans | max ca. 85% red. (biofilm) |
[55] | 1 (with glucose) | 10 min | 660 | 10; 30; 60 | C. albicans | max. 6-log reduction |
[56] | 1 (with chitosan) | 3 min | 660 | - | C. albicans | In vivo experiment (mouse model) |
[57] | 1 (with CTAC, HPS, SDS, and Triton X-100 as surfactant) | 1 h | - | - | C. albicans | max. ca. 47% red. PDT max. 100% red. SDS + PDT max. 100% red. CTAC + PDT max. 100% red. HPS + PDT max. ca. 39% Triton + X−100 |
[58] | 1, 3 | 30 min | Visible light; 675 (laser light) | 20 (laser light) | M. anisopliae, A. nidulans, | Significant decrease of germination of conidia. |
[59] | 3 | 5 min | 630 | 21.7 | C. albicans | max. 50% of inhibition (biofilm) |
[60] | 3 | 5 min | 630 | 20; 30; 40 | C. krusei | max. 70% growth inhibition (plankton) max. 90% growth inhibition (biofilm) |
[61] | 3 | 60 s | 635 | 24;18; 12 | C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. krusei | C.a. max. 100% red. C. g. max. 100% red. C. k. max. 100% red. |
[62] | 3 | 1 min | 635 | 200 | T. rubrum | no fungal growth observed after PACT in vitro, and in an onychomycosis model Patient cured of onychomycosis confirmed in up to 6 months follow-up |
[63] | 3 | 5 min | 630 | 18; 48;72 | T. rubrum | >98% inhibition of fungal growth |
[64] | 3 (with posaconazole or fluconazole) | 30 min | 630 | 50 | C. albicans | 3-log reduction |
[65] | 1 (with fluconazole) | 30 min | 660 | 1.8; 3.6; 5.4; 7.2; 10.8; 14.4; 18 | C. albicans (in G. mellonella) | 1 PACT alone and combined with fluconazole prolonged the larvae survival |
[66] | 1 (fluconazole pre-treatment) | 30 min-with PS alone; 2 h-with fluconazole | 660 | 30; 60; 120 | C. albicans | complete eradication |
[67] | 1 (in combination with itraconazole, voriconazole, posaconazole, amphotericin B) | 2 h | 635 | 12; 24 | Fusarium spp., Exophiala spp. | Reductions of up to 3.8 log and 6.4 log against planktonic Exophiala spp. and Fusarium spp Reductions of up to 4.2 log and 5.6 log against biofilms formed by Exophiala spp. and Fusarium spp. |
[68] | 1 | 10 min | 660 | 28 | Candida spp. (C. albicans, C. tropicalis, C. glabrata)-(clinical trial) | Clinical trial; PACT with 1 as effective as nystatin therapy |
[69] | 1 | - | 660 | - | C. albicans | max. 73% red. |
[70] | 1 | 1 h | 635 | 12, 24 | C. auris | eradication of planktonic forms, ca. 2,7 log red. of biofilms, C.a. AR385 biofilm > 7 log red. |
[71] | 1 | 3 min | 670 | - | Trichophyton sp., T. rubrum, T. mentagrophytes, C. parapsilosis, C. famata, A. fumigatus, Rhodotula, Microsporum, Microsporum + Epidermophyton, Fusarium (clinical trial) | Clinical trial; 70% of patients cured |
[72] | 1 | 10 min | 660 | 28 | Candida ssp. (clinical trial) | Clinical trial |
[73] | 1 | 5 min | 808 | - | C. albicans (Clinical trial) | Clinical trial; >6 log red. |
[74] | 2 and 58 | 5 min (58); 30 min (2) | 810 (58); 630 (2) | 52 (58); 5 (2) | T. rubrum | 0.64 log red. (58) 0.4 log red. (2) |
[75] | 1, 2, 3 and 5 | 30 min | 400–700 (max. 631) | 3; 6; 11 | N. dimidiatum, N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum | max. 4.5 log red. (1/3; Neoscytalidium dimidiatum) max. 5 log red. (1/3; Neoscytalidium dimidiatum var. Hyalinum) max. 4–5 log red. (2; Neoscytalidium dimidiatum) max. 5 log red. (2; Neoscytalidium dimidiatum var. Hyalinum) max. 5 log red. (5; Neoscytalidium dimidiatum) max. 3.5 log red. (5; Neoscytalidium dimidiatum var. Hyalinum) |
[76] | 1 | 2 h | 635 | 12 | Scedosporium and Lomentospora spp. | 3.3 log red. (L. prolificans) 2.8 log red. (S. boydii) 3 log red. (S. aurantiacum) 3 log red. (S. dehoogii) 5.2 log red. (S. apiospermum) 2.7 log red. (S. minutispora) |
[77] | 1 | 10 min | 625 | 3; 12; 24; 40; 60 | T. rubrum | up to 100% |
[78] | 1@AuNPs | - | 650; 530 | 80; 100 | T. mentagrophytes | In vivo experiment (rabbit model) |
[79] | 1, 58 in compilation with nystatin and chlorhexidine) | - | 660; 808 | 10 | C. albicans | 1.04 log red. (1) 1.2 log red. (ICG) |
[80] | 1, 3, 2 and 5 | 30 min | 635 | 0; 10; 15; 20 | F. oxysporum, F. moniliforme, and F. solani | F. oxysporium (MIC): 1 12.5–25 µM 3 25–50 µM 2 2.5 µM 5 5 µM F. moniliforme (MIC): 1 25 µM 3 10–12.5 µM 2 10 µM 5 5 µM F. solani (MIC): 1 25–75 µM 3 12.5–25 µM 2 2.5–5 µM 5 5 µM |
[81] | 1, 2 (combined or not with potassium iodide) | 10 min | 660 | 3.18; 6.36; 12.73; 19.10 in vitro 105.26; 157.89 in vivo | Candida albicans. | In vitro (C.a.biofilm): 1 + KI 2.31 log red. 2 1.77 log red. In vivo, almost complete eradication of C.a. |
[82] | 1 | 24 h | 576–672 | 15 | C. albicans, C. parapsilosis | C. albicans biofilm MIC 30 µM C. parapsilosis biofilm MIC up to 7.5 µM |
[83] | AuNPs@1; AuNPs@3 | 30 min | 662 (1); 635 (3) | 21.6 | C. albicans | max. 80% red. in biofilm formation * * Estimated data in case of both types of nanoparticles used |
[84] | 7 and 8 | 3 or 18 h | 600 | 12; 36 | C. albicans biofilms | up to total cell inactivation with FSc |
[85] | 2, 58 (EmunDo®) | 30 min | 810; 630 | 15 (630 nm); 55 (810 nm) | C. albicans | max. 1.9 log (58) max. 3.37 log red. (2) |
[86] | 1, 2, 3, 5 | 30 min | 400–790 | 5; 10; 15; 20; 25; 30 | C. acutatum, C. gloeosporioides | max. antifungal activity ca. 5 log red. (2 and 5 against conidia) |
[87] | 1 | 10 min | 660 | 18 (one session); 36 (two sessions) | C. albicans | In vivo experiment (mouse model) |
[88] | Crystal violet, New Fuchsin; Azure B | 30 min | 455–800 | - | C. albicans | max. ca. 5 log red. (CV) max. ca. 2.7 log red. (AzB) max. ca. 1 log red. (NF) |
[89] | 1 | - | 630 | 18 | various species of fungimainly T. rubrum, and T. mentagrophytes (Clinical trial) | In vivo experiment (clinical trial) |
[90] | 1, 2, 3, 5 | 30 min | 634; 631 | 5; 10; 15; 25 | C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. krusei, C. parapsilosis, C. tropicalis | MICs up to 1 µM |
[91] | 3 | 10 min | 630 | 21.47 | C. albicans | max. ca. 62% of inhibition (biofilm formation) |
[92] | 3 | 5 min | 637 | 18 | C. albicans | 0.46 log |
[93] | 6 | 0, 15, 30, 60 min, 3, 5 and 24 h | 639.8 | 18; 37 | C. albicans | max. 6 log reduction |
[94] | 3 (with chitosan) | 10, 30 or 60 min | 630 | 50 | C. albicans | Complete eradication (ca. 7 log10) |
[95] | 1 | 1 min | 660 | 7.5 | Candida spp. (clinical trial) | Clinical trial |
[96] | 1@AuNP | 12 and 24 h | 660 | 38.2 | C. albicans | 1: 63.2% (crystal violet assay) or 81.9% (XTT assay) biofilm inhibition 1@AuNP: 82.2% (crystal violet) or 95.4% (XTT assay) biofilm inhibition |
[97] | 1 | 1 h | - | - | F. pedrosoi, C. carrionii | Ca. 4 log red. |
[98] | 1, 2, 3 and 5 | 30 min | 634/631 | 5; 10; 15; 20; 25; 30 | T. mentagrophytes, T. rubrum | T.m. MIC: 1 up to 5 µM 3 up to 2.5 µM 2 up to 2.5 µM 5 up to 0.1 µM T.r. MIC: 1 up to 5 µM 3 up to 1 µM 2 up to 2.5 µM 5 up to 0.5 µM |
[99] | 1 | 5 min | 660 | 60; 120; 180 | C. albicans, C. tropicalis, C. krusei, C. guillermondii | up to 78% reduction |
[100] | 1 (ointment) | 4 h | 660 | 28 | Fungi causing chromoblastomycosis (Clinical trial) | 80–90% volume reduction of the lesion in 10 patients |
[101] | 1 (with verapamil) | 30 min | 660 | 60 | C. albicans | ABC pump decreased the effectiveness of 1 more than MFS pump |
[102] | 3, 1, and 2 | 30 min | 635; 660 | in vitro: 0; 1.95; 3.90; 5.85; 7.80; 9.75 in vivo: 78; 120 | C. albicans | in vitro: 2 4.43 log red 1, 3 < 1 log red |
[103] | 3 | 5 min | 630 | 18–90 | T. rubrum | max. 1.72 log red. |
[104] | 9, 10 | 5 min | 455 | 95 | C. albicans | 9 max. 3.45 log red. (plankton) 10 max. 1.97 log red. (plankton) biofilms < 1 log red. |
[105] | 1, 3, malachite green | 5 min | 660 | 15.8; 26.3; 39.5 | C. albicans | 1 max. 2.71 log red. 3 max. 3.07 log red. malachite green max. 2.25 log red. |
[106] | 1 | 5 min | 684 | 28 | C. albicans | max. ca. 2.5 log red |
[107] | 3 | 5 min | 630 | 36–180 | Candida spp. (Clinical isolates) | max. 3.54 log red. single irradiation; complete eradication after second irradiation 55% inhibition of adhesion to buccal cells |
[108] | 1 | 5 min | 683 | 28 | C. albicans | <10% cel viability (estimated data) |
[109] | 1 | - | 685 | 28 | C. albicans, C. dubliniensis, C. krusei, and C. tropicalis | C.a. 88.6% CFU number reduction C.d. 84.8% CFU number reduction C.k. 91.6% CFU number reduction C.t. 82.3% CFU number reduction |
Reference | Photosensitizer | Incubation Time (Min.) | Irradiation Wavelength (nm) | Light Dose (J/cm2) | Antimicrobial Activity | Reported Inhibition in Bacterial Growth |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[130] | 9 | 5 | 532 | 42.63 | C. albicans, C. dubliniensis | Complete eradication for both (plankton) Biofilm: C.a. 0.74 log red. C.d. 0.21 log red. |
[132] | 9 | 10 | 532 | 42.63 | C. glabrata | One application: 4.64 log red. Four applications: 5.94 log red. |
[133] | 9 | 1 | 532 | 14.34 | C. albicans | In vivo experiment (mouse model) |
[134] | 9 | 0.5 or 1 | 450 | 28.8 | C. albicans | In vitro: Complete eradication for plankton and biofilm In vivo: No significant red. |
[136] | 9 | 5 | 532 | 42.63 | C. albicans, S. sanguinis | 1.07 log red. (C.a. biofilm) 0.39 log red. (C.a. and S.s. mixed biofilm) |
[137] | 9 | 5 | 532 | 42.63 | C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. tropicalis, C. dubliniensis | C.a. 4.62/1.01 log red.* C.g. 2.58/1.17 log red.* C.t. 2.81/1.17 log red.* C.d. 3.99/1.13 log red.** (plankton/biofilm) |
[140] | 10 and 12 | 5 | 532 | 42.63 | C. albicans | 0.22 log red. (10) 0.45 log red. (12) |
[141] | 10 | 30 | 532 | 68; 133; 228 | T. rubrum | max. ca. 85% red. |
[142] | 10 and 11 | - | 518 (RB); 375 (riboflavin) | 5.4 | F. solani, A. fumigatus, C. albicans | C.a. 95.6% growth inhibition A.f. 79.8% growth inhibition F.s. 78.2% growth inhibition |
[143] | 10 with gold nanoparticles | 120 | 500–780 | 3.18; 15.9; 31.8; 63.6; 95.4 | C. albicans | max. 4.89 log red. (plankton) max. 1.53 log red. (biofilm) |
[144] | 10 with clotrimazolum | 30 | 530 | 4; 8; 12; 24 | T. rubrum | max. 100% inhibition |
Reference | Photosensitizer-13 Concentration | Incubation Time (Min.) | Irradiation Wavelength (nm) | Light Dose (J/cm2) | Antimicrobial Activity Against | Reported Inhibition in Bacterial Growth |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[149] | 20 µM, 30 µM and 40 µM | 20 | - | 5.28 and 18 | C. albicans, C. tropicalis, and C. glabrata | 40 µM of CUR at 18 J/cm2 reduced the metabolic activity of C. albicans biofilm (by 85%), C. glabrata biofilm (by 85%), and C. tropicalis biofilm (by 73%). |
[150] | 20 µM, 30 µM and 40 µM | 20 | 455 | 5.28 | C. dubliniensis | The combination of Cur and LED light led to a reduction in CFU values of fungal planktonic cultures from 106 to 103 (CD6 strain) and 102 (CD7 and CD8 strains). The mean percentage reduction in biofilm cultures ranged from 57.70 to 82.05% |
[151] | 1 µM, 5 µM, 10 µM, 20 µM, 40 µM and 80 µM Also in combination of 208 µM fluconazole | 20 | 430 | 9 | C. albicans | PDT utilizing 1 μM curcumin and 9 J/cm2 of light decreased the number of planktonic C. albicans colonies by three orders of magnitude and at curcumin concentrations of 5 μM or higher, PDT eliminated all C. albicans colonies. Combined treatment of fluconazole with PDT and curcumin led to decrease of C. albicans cell viability to 5%. albicans in adherent culture. |
[152] | 60 µM | 20 | 455 | 2.64, 5.28, 7.92, 10.56, 13.2 | C. albicans | The inhibition rates after CUR-PDT in three biofilms (ATCC 90028, CCA1, and CCA2) were 90.87%, 66.44%, and 86.74%, respectively (p < 0.05). |
[153] | 40 µM and 80 µM | 20 | 450 | 37.5 or 50 | C. albicans | CUR-mediated aPDT promoted a downregulation of gene expression of fungal genes related to adhesion and biofilm formation (ALS1 and HWP1) and the genes responsible for the oxidative stress response (CAP1, CAT1, and SOD1). |
[154] | 5, 10, 20, 30 and 40 µM | 1, 5, 10 and 20 | 455 | 5.28 | C. albicans, C. glabrata, and C. dubliniensis | For the planktonic cultures, photoinactivation depended on Cur concentration and complete inactivation of the suspensions was achieved. Cur-mediated PDT was effective against Candida biofilms, with reductions of 94%, 89%, and 85% in the cell viabilities of C. albicans, C. glabrata, and C. dubliniensis, respectively. The highest decrease in cell viability for the biofilms was observed for the combination of 40 µM Cur with 20 min of PIT. |
[155] | 0.1 μg/mL; 1 μg/mL; 10 μg/mL curcumin and curcumin incorporated in nanoparticles | 10 | 417 | 10, 20, and 40 | Trichophyton rubrum | Antimicrobial photodynamic inhibition utilizing curcumin (10 μg/mL) with 10 J/cm2 of blue light completely inhibited fungal growth via induction of ROS and nitrogen species (RNS). Curcumin in nanoparticles induced greater NO• expression and increased apoptosis of fungal cells. |
[156] | 2.5 µM | 20 | 440–460 | 37.5 | C. albicans | The DNA damage was analyzed by the comet assay. DNA damage was significantly increased for longer comet tails observed after application of Cur mediated PDT. |
[157] | 1.5 g/L | - | 450 | 20.1 | C. albicans | PDT reduced 1.46 C. albicans log10 CFU/mL, in contrast to 450 nm blue LED or curcumin for 5 min. |
[158] | 0.005, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, and 20 µM for planktonic culture 5, 10, 20, 30 and 40 µM for biofilms | 20 (planktonic) 5 or 20 (biofilm) | 455 | 5.28 and 37.5 | C. albicans | In the conditions of complete inactivation of the fungal planktonic form (20 µM/20 min preirradiation time/5.28 J cm−2), the metabolic activity of biofilms was reduced by 70%. |
[159] | 20, 40, and 80 µM | 20 | 455 | 37.5 | C. albicans | All curcumin and LED light treatments resulted in a significant reduction of C. albicans viability after PDT. The curcumin concentration of 80 µM combined with LED light application promoted the highest log10 reduction in colony counts (over 4 logs). |
[160] | 80, 100, and 120 μM | 20 | from 440 to 460 | 37.5 | C. albicans, C. glabrata, and Streptococcus mutans | For the biofilms of both ages (24 and 48 h), the tested concentrations of Cur with light promoted a reduction in cell metabolism, with the highest reduction 40.62% achieved with the concentration of 120 μM of Cur. |
[161] | 40 μM | 20 | 455 | 5.28 | C. albicans co-cultured with human keratinocytes | After applying aPDI the reduction in CFU/mL equivalent to 1.7 log10 was observed. |
[162] | 260 μM Free curcumin and curcumin encapsulated in nanoparticles NP | 20 | 455 | 37.5 | C. albicans | aPDT with free CUR topically applied on the tongue of mice with oral candidiasis led to a reduction of 1.11 log10 in the viability of fungus, while aPDT mediated by anionic CUR-NP demonstrated no antifungal effect, and cationic CUR-NP reduced the fungal cells (0.44–0.74 log10) even in the absence of light. |
Reference | Photosensitizer | Incubation Time | Irradiation Wavelength (nm) | Light Dose (J/cm2) | Antimicrobial Activity Against | Reported Fungal Growth Inhibition |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[121] | Photogem® | 30 min | 455 (440–460) | 10.5, 18.0, 25.5, 37.5 | C. albicans, C. glabrata | plaktonic culture—up to complete eradication; biofilms < 1.0 log red. |
[163] | Photofrin | 30 min | n.d. (white light) | 9 | C. albicans, C. krusei C. glabrata | significant reductions of C. albicans at 1 µg/mL, C. krusei at 3 µg/mL, C. glabrata at 10 µg/mL |
[164] | Photofrin | 1 or 5 min | 400–700 | 9 | C. albicans (germ tubes and biofilm) | optimization of PDI conditions using Photofrin; significant reduction of germ tubes; higher activity towards biofilm than amphotericin B |
[165] | Photofrin | 1 or 24 h | 630 | 45–135 | C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. parapsilosis, C. Krusei, C. tropicalis | Optimization of conditions, up to eradication of fungi apart from C. krusei which was reduced by up to 90%. Amphotericin B and azole-resistant strains were equally susceptible to PDI. |
[166] | Photogem® | 30 min | 455 | 18.0, 25.5, 37.5 | C. albicans, C. dubliniensis, C. tropicalis, C. krusei | Complete eradication of C. albicans, C. dubliniensis, and C. tropicalis; C. krusei could not be eradicated |
[167] | Photogem® | 30 min | 455 (440–460) | 37.5 | ex vivo cultures on dentures: C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. tropicalis, C. dubliniensis, C. krusei | up to 3.99 log red. |
[168] | Photogem® | 30 min | 455 or 630 | 305 | C. albicans in vivo oral candidiasis in mice | 1–1.4 log red. |
[169] | Photogem® | 30 min | 455 (440–460) | 122 | case reports of denture stomatitis: C. Albicans, C. Glabrata, C. tropicalis | two patients cured after the applied PDI |
[170] | Photogem® | 30 min | 455 (440–460) | 37.5 122 | denture stomatitis: C. albicans, C. tropicalis, C. Glabrata, C. Lusitaniae, C. Rugosa, C. guillermondii, Cryptococcus humicola, Cryptococcus albidus Kloeckera apis/apiculata | clinical study, 45% success rate |
[171] | Photogem® | 1 h | 630 | 54 | onychomycosis | case report; complete recovery of one patient |
[172] | Photogem® | 0 5 10 20 | 410–440 (incubation) 610–640 (PDI) | 4 8 17 | C. albicans | <1 log red. when incubation in the dark 7 log red. when incubation with low intensity light (4 J/cm2) |
[173] | 15 | 30 min | 400–780 | 72 | C. albicans | 7 log red. |
[174] | 15 | 30 min | 400–800 | 72 | C. albicans biofilm | up to 3.26 log red. |
[178] | 5-ALA | 4 h | broadband red light | 75 | case report of interdigital mycoses treatment (T. mentagrophytes, C. albicans, T. rubrum) | after 4 weeks follow-up only two out of 9 patients were recovered |
[179] | ALA, itraconazole | 4 h | 630 | 360 | C. albicans (cutaneous granuloma) | case report—full recovery of one treated patient |
[180] | methyl 5-aminolevulinate | 3 h | 630 | 37 | Malassezia | six case studies; improvement observed in five patients |
[181] | methyl 5-aminolevulinate | 3–5 h | 630 | 37 | case report of Acremonium sclerotigenum onychomycosis | clinical cure in 12-month follow-up |
[182] | methyl 5-aminolevulinate and bifonazole | 3 h | 635 | 37 | Neoscytalidium dimidiatum onychomycosis | case report; reinfection with the pathogen without the clinical symptoms |
[183] | ALA | n.d. | 635 | 10 | Fonsecaea monophora | estimated 4 log red. |
[184] | ALA combined with terbinafine, itraconazole, or voriconazole | n.d. | 635 | n.d. | chromoblastomycosis: F. nubica, F. pedrosoi, F. monophora | case report, full recovery of three out of five patients |
[185] | ALA | 12 h | 635 | 30 60 90 | Fonsecaea monophora conidia | up to almost 6 log red. |
[186] | ALA | 5 h | 635 | 50 100 200 300 | C. albicans biofilm | up to 75% cell viability decrease |
[187] | 1, 16 | 10 min | 630 (16) 660 (1) | 85 (16) 6048 (1) | in vivo vaginal candidiasis (C. albicans) in mice | up to 1 log red. 16 used in 10-fold lower concentration to yield the same effect |
[188] | 5,10,15,20-tetrakis (N-methylpyrid−4-yl) porphyrin tetra (4-toluenesulfonate), Photofrin | 10 min | 75% in range of 575–700 | n.d. | C. albicans, C. glabrata | up to 3 log red; increased susceptibility to PDI when azole-resistance expressed |
[189] | 17 | 10 min | 67% in range 575–700 | 2.4 | C. albicans, C. glabrata S. cerevisiae | mechanistic studies |
[190] | 17 | 30 min | 350–800 | n.d. | C. albicans | 5 log red. |
[191] | 17, 18 | - | - | - | T. rubrum Scopulariopsis brevicaulis | localization and stability study |
[192] | 17, 18, Eosin Y | 30 min | white light | 21.6 43.2 64.8 1382.4 | T. rubrum Trichophyton interdigitale S. brevicaulis | up to complete eradication by each of the tested PSs |
[193] | 19, 20, 21 | 30 min | n.d. (visible light) | n.d. | C. albicans | 4 log red. for 19 and 20, almost no effect at the same concentrations of 21 |
[194] | 17, 19, 20 | 30 min | 350–800 | n.d. | C. albicans | mechanistic study, up to 5 log red. |
[195] | 17, 19, 20 | 30 min | 350–800 | 162 | C. albicans | 3.5 log red. |
[196] | 17, miconazole | 30 min | 350–800 | 58.5 | biofilms: C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis | C. glabrata—resistant to PDI Other strains cell viability reduced to 64%. All strains susceptible to combined PDI and miconazole therapy (additive or synergistic) |
[197] | 17 | n.d. | 67% in range 575–700 | 1.0 | C. albicans | >1.5 log red. of PDI > 2.0 log red. when PDI combined with miconazole therapy |
[198] | 5,10,15,20-tetrakis [4-(3-N,N-dimethylaminopropoxy) phenyl]-porphyrin; 5,10,15,20-tetrakis [4-(3-N,N,N-trimethylammoniumpropoxy) phenyl] porphyrin tetraiodide | 30 min | 350–800 | 162 | C. albicans | up to 4.8 log red. |
[199] | 17; 5,10,15,20-tetrakis (N-pentylpyrid−4-yl) porphyrin tetraiodide | 3 h | 400–800 | 240 | Penicillium chrysogenum conidia | 17: 4.1 log red 5,10,15,20-tetrakis (N-pentylpyrid−4-yl) porphyrin tetraiodide: 3.4 log red. |
[200] | 17 | 30 min | 67% in range 575–700 (in vitro) 514 (in vivo) | 2.4 (in vitro) 90 (in vivo) | C. albicans (in vitro and in vivo in mice) | in vitro: nearly 4 log red. in vivo: 50-fold reduction of CFUs |
[201] | 5-phenyl−10,15,20-tris (N-methyl−4-pyridyl) porphyrin chloride | 1, 15, 30 | n.d. (white light) | 0–9 | C. albicans | mechanistic study; up to 6 log reduction |
[202] | 17, 22 | 15 min (plankton) 4 h (biofilm) | 418 | 12.1 (plakton) 48.2 (biofilm) | C. albicans | planktonic: up to 6 log red biofilm: up to 5 log red. |
[203] | 5-(N-methylpyrid−4-yl)−10,15,20-triphenylporphyrin iodide 5,10-bis (N-methylpyrid−4-yl)−15,20-diphenylporphyrin diiodide 5,15-bis (N-methylpyrid−4-yl)−10,20-diphenylporphyrin diiodide 5,10,15-tris (N-methylpyrid−4-yl)−20-phenylporphyrin triiodide 5,10,15,20- tetrakis (N-methylpyrid−4-yl) porphyrin tetraiodide | n.d. | 400–800 | 30 60 90 120 | Colletotrichum graminicola | up to over 4.5 log red.—eradication |
[204] | deuteroporphyrin monomethyl ester (DP mme), 23, deuteroporphyrin (DP), hematoporphyrin (HP), Photofrin, zinc(II) phthalocyanine (ZnPc), phthalocyanine tetrasulfonate (PcS4), aluminum(III) phthalocyanine chloride tetrasulfonate (AlPcS4). | 30 min at 28 °C | n.d. | 108 | T. rubrum | DP mme, Sylsens B: fungicidal effect at 3 µg/mL Photofrin, ZnPc, PcS4, AlPcS4: delay the growth, no difference from the control after 7 days of culture |
[205] | 23, DP mme | 2 h | 580–600 | 108 | T. rubrum in ex vivo skin model | up to 100% decrease of cell viability |
[206] | 23, DP mme | 2 or 3 h | 580–600 | 108 | T. rubrum | PDI conditions optimization; up to complete eradication |
[207] | 23 | 2 | 340–550 | 18 | T. rubrum | Optimization of the PDI conditions, up to complete eradication at 1 µM |
[208] | 5,10,15-tris(N-methylpyrid−4-yl)−20-(4-sulfanylphenyl)porphyrin trichloride, 23, 25 | 1 h | 532 | 0.15 0.6 | Trichophyton mentagrophytus conidia | 5,10,15-tris(N-methylpyrid−4-yl)−20-(4-sulfanylphenyl) porphyrin trichloride: 4.6 log red. 23: 4.4 log red. 25: up to 4.1 log red. |
[209] | 25 | 1 h | 27 28 81 | Ex vivo onychomycosis: T. rubrum, T. mentagrophytes, T. tonsurans | 25: single irradiation—≥70% cell viability decrease, second irradiation—eradication | |
[210] | 26 in poly (silesesquioxane) thin films | n.d. | 350–800 | n.d. | C. albicans | 2.5 log red. as compared to 0.5 log red for free 26 |
[211] | CdTe quantum dots, Zn (II) 5,10,15,20-tetrakis (N-ethylpyrid−2-yl)porphyrin and their combination | 10 min | 460 | 0–81 | C. albicans | combination 1 log red. free porphyrin 3 log red. |
[212] | silver core-silica shell nanoparticles, hematoporphyrin IX, material based on both | 30 min | 400 | n.d. | T. rubrum | nanoparticles alone < 1 log red. hematoporphyrin IX alone < 1 log red. material 3 log red. |
[213] | methyl 5-aminolevulinate | 3 h | 630 | 37 | T. rubrum (clinical case of onychomycosis) | three sessions of irradiation resulted in clinical cure at 24-month follow-up |
Reference | Photosensitizer | Incubation Time (Min.) | Irradiation Wavelength (nm) | Light Dose (J/cm2) | Antimicrobial Activity Against | Reported Inhibition in Bacterial Growth |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[215] | 28 | - | 660 | 10; 20; 30 | F. solani, A. fumigatus | F.s. max. Complete eradication A.f. max. ca. 50% red. |
[216] | 27 | 20 | 660 | 40 | C. albicans | max. ca. 90% red. for plankton and biofilm |
[217] | 29 | 15 | 627 | 31.5 | C. albicans, E. faecalis | 58.98% red. (C.a. and E.f. mixed biofilm) |
[218] | 27 (encapsulated in CTAB-liposomes) | 15 | 662 | 50 | C. albicans, C. krusei, C. tropicals, | In vitro: Max. Complete eradication In vivo: max. 1.75 log red. |
[219] | PEI−27 (linear, LMW, HMW) | 10 | 665 | 0–100 | C. albicans, S. aureus, S. pyogenes, E. coli, P. aeruginosa | C. albicans: 27 2 log red. 27-LMW 2 log red. 27-HMW; 27-lin 4–6 log red. |
[221] | 34–37 | 30 | 415; 660 | 10; 20 | C. albicans, MRSA, E. faecium, E. coli | C. albicans: 34–36—max. complete eradication 37 No significant red. |
[222] | 38 | 20 | 660 | 25 | C. albicans | Plankton: max. Complete eradication Biofilm: PACT No significant red. PACT + SDT 3.39 log red. |
[223] | 38 (pre-treatment with fluconazole) | 20 | 660 | 50 | C. albicans | 2.6 log |
[224] | 38 | 20 | 660 | 37.5 | Candida spp. (clinical trial) | max 1.96 log red. without formulation > 5 log red. for formulations |
[225] | 38 | 20 | 660 | 37.5 | C. albicans, C. glabrata, and S. mutans multispecies biofilm | C.a. ca. 1 log red. C.g. ca. 1.5 log red. estimated data |
[226] | 38 | 20 (planktonic) | 660 | 18.0; 25.5; 37.5 | C. albicans, C. glabrata, and C. tropicalis (clinical isolates) | max. 0.9 log red. (C.a.) max. 1.4 log red. (C.t.) max. 1.5 log red. (C.g.) |
Reference | Photosensitizer | Incubation Time | Irradiation Wavelength (nm) | Light Dose (J/cm2) | Antimicrobial Activity Against | Reported Inhibition in Bacterial Growth |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[229] | phthalocyanine encapsulated chitosan/TPP nanoparticles (FNP) from chitosan, tripolyphosphate (TPP), and phthalocyanine-4,4′,4″,4‴-tetrasulfonic acid (FePC). In experiments combining PDT with chemical therapy, C. tropicalis was treated with 128 µM flucytosine prior to or after the PDT experiments | 4 h | 630 | 20 | C. tropicalis | After PDT with FePC (70% cell viability) or FNP (50% cell viability) Prior to and after the flucytosine therapy, FNP-PDT largely decreased the viability of C. tropicalis cells. Cell viability was ~25% for the treatment with flucytosine and subsequent PDT with 80 μM FNP. |
[230] | 39, 40 | 1.5 h | 635 | 50 | C. albicans | The fungal biofilm inactivation with 3 log (39) was observed only after fractionated LEDs irradiation. C. albicans in suspension was completely inactivated after 39 (1.8 mM) at soft light radiation. |
[231] | 41, 42 | 15 min. | 665 | 50 | C. albicans, Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Sufficient efficacy of PACT for planktonic cultures, but low PACT efficacy (<3 logs) of the photoinactivation of the 48 h bacterial and fungal biofilms in comparison to effect in suspension. |
[232] | 43 entrapped in cationic and anionic nanoemulsions (NE) | 30 min. | 660 | 50, 100 | C. albicans | In case of planktonic cultures, cationic NE-43 reduced significantly both colony counts and cell metabolism. In addition, cationic NE-43 and free 34 caused significant damage to the cell membrane. In case of the biofilms, cationic NE-43 reduced cell metabolism by 70%, whereas anionic NE-43 was inactive. |
[233] | 43-NE | - | 660 | 30.9 | onychomycosis | Clinical cure of 60% of treated lesions |
[234] | 43-NE | 30 min. | 675 | 5, 10 | Cryptococcus neoformans | Treatment with 43-NE, using selected PS concentrations (e.g., 4.5 µM) and light doses (e.g., 10 J cm−2) resulted in a reduction of up to 6 logs in survival of fungi. |
[235] | 43-NE | 30 min. | 675 | 25, 50 and 100 | C. albicans and C. tropicalis | APDT with 43-NE led to a reduction of five orders of magnitude in viability for C. albicans and between four and five orders of magnitude for C. tropicalis. |
[236] | 44 | at least 1 h | 670–675 | 1–2 | C. albicans | Application of 1.0 μM Pc 4 and irradiation at 2.0 J/cm2 caused cell survival reduction by 4 logs. |
[237] | 43 encapsulated in cationic nanoemulsions (NE) or 43 dissolved in DMSO | - | 660 | 100 | C. albicans | 43-NE-mediated PDT reduced 2.26 log 10 of C. albicans recovered from the oral lesions of immunocompromised mice when compared with the control group. |
[238] | 45 | 2.5, 15, and 30 min | 350–800 | 54 | C. albicans | After 15 min irradiation—a 5 log decrease in the cell viability (treated with 10 mM 45). After 30 min irradiation—a 4 log decrease in the cell viability (treated with 1 mM 45). After over 30 min irradiation—a 2.5 log decrease in the cell viability (cell suspension of 107 cells mL−1 incubated with 45) |
[239] | 45 | - | 350–800 | 54 | C. albicans | After 30 min irradiation, 5 µM 45 produced ~5 log decrease in cell viability |
[240] | 46 | 5 min (pre-irradiation time) | 660 | 26.3 | Candida spp., Trichosporon mucoides, Kodamaea ohmeri | A mean reduction of 0.45 log in case of Candida spp. biofilms, and a reduction of 0.85 and 0.84 for biofilms formed by T. mucoides and K. ohmeri, respectively. |
[241] | 44 | 2–16 h | 670–675 | 2 | Trichophyton rubrum | Reduction of metabolic activity by 50% within 4 h compared to controls following irradiation of Pc 4-loaded terbinafine-sensitive (24602) and terbinafine-resistant (MRL666) microconidia or hyphae. |
[243] | 49, 50 | 10 min. | 675 | 12,30 and 60 | Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, C. albicans | Complete inactivation of S. aureus and C. albicans by the cationic photosensitizer. P. aeruginosa inactivated with 4 log |
[244] | Carboxymethyl chitosan-zinc (II) phthalocyanine conjugates | 4 h | - | - | C. albicans | The highest photocytotoxicity (with an IC90 value down to 0.72 μM) observed for conjugate of ZnPcN and CMC1 (CMC1, MW = 50 kDa, a low molecular-weight CMC, N,O-carboxymethyl chitosan) |
[245] | phthalocyanine derivatives | 30 min. | - | 30, 60, 90 | C. albicans | ZnPc reduced the mean cell viability values of C. albicans to 5 (at 30 J/cm2 light doses) and 2 CFU/mL (at 60 J/cm2 light doses). 54 and 55 reduced the mean CFU/mL values to 5 CFU/mL after irradiation with 60 J/cm2. Studied compounds had inhibitory effects on fungus after irradiation and reduced the mean CFU/mL levels to ≤100 CFU/mL. |
[246] | 57 | 1 h | 675 | 12 | C. albicans | 57 inactivated C. albicans at sub-micromolar level. The IC50 value was 0.013 µmol−1 (for a cell density of 107 cells mL−1) |
[242] | 47, 48 | 3 h | >610 nm | 27 | C. albicans | High PACT of the dodeca-cationic phthalocyanine against C. albicans with an IC90 value down to 1.46 µM |
Reference | Photosensitizer | Incubation Time (Min.) | Irradiation Wavelength (nm) | Light Dose (J/cm2) | Antimicrobial Activity Against | Reported Inhibition in Bacterial Growth |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[74] | 58 (EmunDo®) | 5 | 800 | 5 | T. rubrum | 0.64 |
[247] | 58 (EmunDo®) | 5 | 810 | 55 | C. albicans | 1.90 |
[252] | 60 | 30 | 400–780 | 72 | C. albicans | Dependently on strain up to 7.00 |
[254] | 61 | <1 | 602 ± 10 | 18 | C. albicans, C. parapsilosis, C. krusei | ca. 3 |
[256] | 62, 63, 64 | 30 | 532 | 24 | C. albicans cal-1 | 3.76, 3.08, and 3.72, respectively |
[258] | 65 | 30 | 350–800 | 162 | C. albicans | 5.00 |
[260] | 67 | 30 | 405 | 20 | C. albicans | Dependently on derivative up to 5.00 |
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Ziental, D.; Mlynarczyk, D.T.; Czarczynska-Goslinska, B.; Lewandowski, K.; Sobotta, L. Photosensitizers Mediated Photodynamic Inactivation against Fungi. Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2883. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11112883
Ziental D, Mlynarczyk DT, Czarczynska-Goslinska B, Lewandowski K, Sobotta L. Photosensitizers Mediated Photodynamic Inactivation against Fungi. Nanomaterials. 2021; 11(11):2883. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11112883
Chicago/Turabian StyleZiental, Daniel, Dariusz T. Mlynarczyk, Beata Czarczynska-Goslinska, Konrad Lewandowski, and Lukasz Sobotta. 2021. "Photosensitizers Mediated Photodynamic Inactivation against Fungi" Nanomaterials 11, no. 11: 2883. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11112883