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Article

Smart Buildings Using Web of Things with .NET Core: A Framework for Inter-Device Connectivity and Secure Data Transfer

by
Nazmi Ekren
1,*,
Mehmet Sensoy
1 and
Tahir Cetin Akinci
2,*
1
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Marmara University, Istanbul 34722, Türkiye
2
Center for Environmental Research and Technology (Ce-Cert), College of Engineering, University of California Riverside (UCR), Riverside, CA 92507, USA
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Information 2025, 16(2), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/info16020123
Submission received: 21 January 2025 / Revised: 5 February 2025 / Accepted: 7 February 2025 / Published: 8 February 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Information Applications)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The Internet of Things (IoT) is experiencing rapid growth, with an increasing number of devices connected to the Internet. By 2020, approximately 54% of the 21.7 billion active internet-connected devices worldwide were IoT devices. This number is projected to reach 30 billion by 2025, with an average of four IoT devices per person globally. IoT devices use communication protocols, such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and RFID, to facilitate data exchange. However, the absence of standardized communication protocols and reprogrammable architectures presents significant challenges for IoT applications. Smart buildings, which heavily depend on IoT technology, are particularly affected by the diversity of protocols and standards used by different devices. The Web of Things (WoT) framework has been introduced to address these challenges, enabling interoperability among devices with heterogeneous communication protocols and enhancing system programmability. The increasing adoption of IoT devices necessitates more efficient communication protocols and integrated architectures to meet the demands of modern innovative building systems. This study presents a WoT-based modular architecture designed to ensure compatibility among devices and protocols while providing scalable, flexible, and secure solutions tailored to the current IoT trends. In this study, an Application Programming Interface (API) and a Worker Service were developed using .NET Core technology and the WoT framework for modular intelligent building automation. This system integrates various subsystems, leveraging hardware and communication protocols for seamless functionality. The API facilitates device monitoring and control, while the Worker Service manages scheduling and database operations. The system supports asynchronous communication by employing the HTTP and WebSocket protocols and provides multi-user access with role-based authorization. The proposed automation system was implemented and evaluated, demonstrating its practical applicability and effectiveness in managing complex, innovative building environments.

1. Introduction

Automation systems in smart buildings play a crucial role in achieving energy efficiency, enhancing user comfort, and improving safety. In 2018, approximately 39.7% of the total energy consumption in the United States was attributed to commercial buildings, residences, and their occupants, with 75% of this consumption related to electricity [1], and among these, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems and lighting accounted for 55% of the energy used in commercial buildings, with lighting alone contributing an estimated $28 billion annually. Even a 1% reduction in energy consumption within this sector could result in significant savings, equivalent to approximately 496 million barrels of oil, emphasizing the importance of energy-efficient systems and technologies.
The IoT has emerged as a transformative technology, enabling interconnected devices to exchange data over the Internet [2]. IoT allows for automated systems for lighting, security, HVAC, and other building applications, providing a foundation for more innovative and efficient infrastructure [3]. However, the lack of standardization among communication protocols and the diverse range of devices introduces challenges in ensuring compatibility, scalability, and security [4]. According to IoT Analytics, IoT devices are expected to comprise 60% of all connected devices by 2024, with an average of four IoT devices per person projected by 2025. This rapid growth, while promising, brings challenges, such as device heterogeneity and data security, which require robust solutions [5,6,7].
To address these challenges, the WoT framework has been developed to improve interoperability among the IoT devices [8]. By leveraging standardized web technologies, such as RESTful APIs and HTTP, WoT provides a platform-agnostic communication layer that facilitates a seamless integration of heterogeneous devices [9]. This study presents a modular architecture that combines the WoT framework with .NET Core to enhance scalability, flexibility, and security in smart building automation. The proposed system is designed to meet the current IoT demands while being adaptable to future applications. Furthermore, the system’s real-world potential has been evaluated, emphasizing its scalability and data security capabilities.
The evolution of smart buildings, driven by the widespread adoption of IoT technologies, reflects a progressive integration of energy management, user-centric automation, and security features. Table 1 summarizes the historical development of IoT in smart buildings, highlighting key milestones, current trends, and future projections. This context provides a comprehensive understanding of IoT’s transformative role in shaping modern building systems and its potential to address future challenges effectively.
The evolution of smart buildings, driven by the widespread adoption of IoT technologies, reflects a progressive integration of energy management, user-centric automation, and security features. Table 1 provides a detailed overview of the historical development of IoT in smart buildings, emphasizing major milestones, current trends, and future projections [10,11].
Between 2000 and 2010, advancements in wireless communication established the foundation for IoT, primarily enabling basic automation, such as HVAC systems and rudimentary security solutions. As the IoT adoption expanded between 2010 and 2020, the concept of smart buildings began to emerge, with notable applications in lighting automation, energy management, and remote monitoring [12]. However, device heterogeneity and data security remained significant barriers during this period.
From 2020 onward, the integration of IoT devices was further supported by the development of standards and frameworks, like WoT, which improved compatibility and scalability in building automation. This period also saw the rise of user-focused smart applications and advanced building management systems. Looking ahead, the large-scale adoption of IoT devices, combined with their integration into smart city infrastructures, is expected to revolutionize energy efficiency and building automation through AI-powered systems and environmentally sustainable architectures.
This comprehensive timeline offers valuable insights into IoT’s transformative role in modern building systems and its potential to address emerging challenges effectively (Figure 1) [4,6].
However, as with any communication between entities, it is necessary to establish some standards or protocols. Building automation protocols are rules and standards that enable communication between different devices used in building automation. Communication between IoT devices is facilitated by various protocols, such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and RFID [13]. However, commercial standards and protocols are widely preferred for smart building automation worldwide [14].
The success of IoT and smart building systems depends significantly on implementing international standards that enhance interoperability, reliability, and security. These standards address key challenges associated with integrating diverse devices and protocols. Table 2 summarizes the primary international standards commonly used in IoT and smart building systems, along with their applications.
This table provides a concise overview of the standards that underpin IoT applications in smart buildings. While IEEE 802.11 and IEEE 802.15.4 are foundational communication protocols, standards such as BACnet and MQTT facilitate system integration and automation. Collectively, these standards play a pivotal role in enhancing the efficiency and reliability of smart building systems by ensuring device compatibility and robust communication [21,22].
Despite these advancements, many device manufacturers continue to design products with proprietary communication protocols and platforms, leading to compatibility issues between devices from different vendors [23]. These challenges complicate inter-device integration, increase implementation costs, and demand advanced programming skills to create custom solutions for seamless operation [24,25].
This study explores the potential of the Web of Things (WoT) framework and .NET Core technology to address these limitations. By leveraging the modularity and scalability of WoT and the robust features of .NET Core, the proposed system aims to improve compatibility and facilitate efficient communication among heterogeneous IoT devices. This approach offers a practical and scalable solution for overcoming the technical and integration challenges commonly encountered in smart building automation [26,27].
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 examines the current research on smart building and WoT integration. Section 3 discusses the architecture of .NET Core for smart buildings, focusing on its key components and advantages. Section 4 and Section 5 provide a detailed explanation of the smart building architecture, demonstrating how the Web of Things with the .NET Core framework was evaluated using an experimental model of a smart building, along with a comparative evaluation. Finally, Section 6 concludes the paper and outlines future work to build upon the findings of this study.

2. Web of Things

IoT applications, which enable the creation of smart environments, are becoming increasingly common, and it is expected that the number of devices connected to the Internet will reach 50 billion by 2026 [26,28]. The primary purpose of IoT is to enable inter-device communication at the web layer to provide various services [12,29]. However, with the widespread use of this technology, some challenges have emerged, including device heterogeneity, low performance, reliability, and data quality issues [27,30].
The WoT paradigm was developed to address device heterogeneity and interoperability challenges in IoT systems. Dominique Guinard and Vlad Trifa laid the conceptual groundwork for WoT in their foundational studies conducted in 2007 and 2009, which established standards to enhance device integration and collaboration [31]. WoT leverages widely used web technologies, such as RESTful APIs, HTTP, and JSON, enabling seamless integration of IoT devices while overcoming compatibility issues. By providing simplicity and flexibility at the application layer, WoT addresses the inherent complexities of traditional IoT systems [9,32,33].
The advantages of WoT become evident when compared to other paradigms. Unlike IoT, which often relies on device-specific protocols for data exchange, WoT adopts a web-based approach, creating a platform-independent structure that streamlines development processes and enhances application adaptability. Similarly, compared to Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA), WoT reduces complexity by utilizing web standards, achieving lower latency and more efficient data exchange.
WoT has been successfully applied across various domains. For instance, Sulistyanto et al. utilized WoT to enable remote control of seed sowing, irrigation, and harvesting in smart farming systems. In another application, Mezenner et al. integrated WoT with SOA to remotely monitor patient health, thus reducing the workload of healthcare professionals. Additionally, Hwang et al. proposed a web-based IoT management system employing deep object detection techniques to control home devices.
Given its ability to integrate heterogeneous devices into a standardized ecosystem, WoT presents a robust solution for managing the growing complexity of IoT systems. This study focuses on harnessing WoT’s unique strengths to enhance flexibility, scalability, and system integration in smart building automation [32,33].
The idea of using the Web as an application layer in IoT systems to facilitate simple interoperability among devices using different protocols began to emerge in 2007, with Dominique Guinard and Vlad Trifa independently working on this concept. Later, the WoT standard was conceptually proposed by Guinard and Trifa in 2009 [32]. These studies demonstrated that WoT and IoT services can be treated as web resources [34].
The WoT extends the capabilities of the Internet of Things (IoT) by providing a standardized and interoperable way to access and control IoT devices through web technologies. By utilizing RESTful APIs and HTTP, WoT enables seamless communication and enhances interoperability among IoT devices and systems, allowing for the collection and analysis of extensive data.
Sulistyanto, M.P.T. et al. implemented the WoT structure for remote seed sowing, irrigation, and harvesting in a smart farm [35]. Mezenner, I. et al. utilized WoT with SOA architecture to remotely monitor hospital patient health and alleviate the healthcare professionals’ workload [36]. Hwang et al.’s study [37] proposed a web-based IoT management system using deep object detection techniques to control home devices.
After establishing a solid foundation for smart buildings through the Web of Things, it becomes essential to leverage a powerful platform for developing and integrating applications. .NET Core emerges as an excellent choice in this regard. Its platform-independent framework enables the seamless integration of Web of Things applications with web APIs and devices. With extensive language support and a rich library set, .NET Core empowers developers to create and manage applications efficiently. Moreover, its optimization for Web of Things projects ensures high performance, security, and scalability. Leveraging the capabilities of .NET Core, developers can effectively harness the Web of Things technologies within smart buildings, facilitating the management and integration of complex systems [3,6,9].

3. NET Core

.NET Core is a versatile framework created by Microsoft for building modern applications that are fast, lightweight, and modular. It enables cross-platform development and offers high performance with multi-threading and asynchronous programming features. It integrates seamlessly with modern web technologies and benefits from strong community support, making it an attractive choice for developers seeking cross-platform capabilities, superior performance, and a wide range of resources. Additionally, being open-source and free enhances its appeal.

3.1. Security in .NET Core

.NET Core provides robust security features to protect IoT applications, including built-in data encryption, authentication support, and secure communication protocols. These features ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of the data transmitted and stored within IoT systems.

3.2. Performance in .NET Core

According to the TechEmpower [38] benchmark test, .NET Core outperformed Java and Node.js regarding raw request throughput and average request latency. In the JSON serialization test, .NET Core achieved 1,544,456 requests per second with an average latency of 39.62 milliseconds, while Java achieved 920,505 requests per second with an average latency of 68.98 milliseconds, and Node.js achieved 526,475 requests per second with an average latency of 78.21 milliseconds.

3.3. Comparison of .NET Core with Other Programming Languages

.NET Core stands out as a versatile framework designed to meet the demands of modern application development. Compared to the widely used programming languages, such as Java, Python, and Node.js, .NET Core offers distinct advantages in performance, scalability, security, and community support (Table 3).
.NET Core demonstrates superior performance, particularly in tasks requiring intensive data processing, such as JSON serialization, making it an ideal choice for real-time systems. While Java remains a staple in enterprise applications due to its stability and extensive ecosystem, and Node.js excels in I/O-driven tasks, Python is more suited for data analysis and machine learning applications.
The cross-platform development capabilities of .NET Core, with its robust security features and strong community support, make it a compelling choice for integrating Web of Things (WoT) applications in smart buildings. These attributes ensure seamless communication, scalability, and enhanced security, aligning with the requirements of complex IoT systems [17].

4. Smart Building System Architecture

In this study, a modular smart building automation system was developed to address interoperability challenges among subsystems using different communication protocols. The architecture integrates three distinct subsystems, each equipped with various sensors and actuators, into a unified IoT application. A WoT Gateway was employed as a translator to provide a standardized interface, enabling seamless communication between devices and systems regardless of their protocols or physical locations. This design enhances the smart building system’s scalability, flexibility, and overall efficiency by simplifying integration processes.
The performance of different communication protocols was assessed based on latency, data transfer rates, and scalability. For a fixed data size of 100 bytes, average latency values were recorded as 8 ms for MQTT, 5 ms for RS-485, and 40 ms for Bluetooth. These results highlight RS-485’s suitability for long-distance communication due to its low latency, MQTT’s effectiveness in low-bandwidth environments for fast data transmission, and Bluetooth’s applicability in short-range, low-energy scenarios.
The number of connected nodes was incrementally increased to evaluate the system’s scalability, and the impact on protocol performance was analyzed. For MQTT, latency remained low at lower node counts but exhibited a linear increase beyond a certain threshold. RS-485 demonstrated stable performance even with larger nodes, making it reliable for systems requiring high scalability. Conversely, Bluetooth’s latency was more sensitive to increases in node count, reflecting its limitations in highly scaled applications. These findings suggest that scalability can be effectively managed through the strategic combination of protocols tailored to specific use cases within the system [38,39].
This architecture underscores the importance of selecting appropriate protocols based on the requirements of different subsystems, enabling efficient and reliable smart building automation. The proposed solution provides a practical approach to overcoming compatibility issues while ensuring the system remains adaptable to varying demands and environments.

4.1. Hardware Used in the Smart Building System

This section provides an overview of the hardware components utilized in the smart building system. The system integrates a Raspberry Pi 4, two Arduino Uno boards, and a NodeMCU ESP8266 microcontroller, each connected to various sensors and actuators to effectively manage distinct subsystems.
The HVAC subsystem utilizes the MQTT protocol, selected for its low latency and lightweight architecture. Integrated with the NodeMCU, this setup enables the efficient transmission of data on temperature, humidity, and air quality from sensors to the Raspberry Pi server. Real-time communication is essential for monitoring and controlling the dynamic parameters of the HVAC system, ensuring optimal performance.
The safety and security subsystem relies on Bluetooth to establish communication between an Arduino board and the Raspberry Pi. This subsystem is equipped with motion and sound sensors for detecting activity, flame detection sensors for fire safety, and MQ2 sensors to monitor harmful gas levels. Additionally, a buzzer alarm provides audible warnings when potential hazards are detected. Bluetooth was chosen for its low energy consumption and suitability for short-range communication, making it an energy-efficient and cost-effective solution.
The lighting subsystem uses the RS-485 protocol to meet the demands of long-distance communication and high reliability. This subsystem connects an Arduino to various devices, including a compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) controlled by a relay and an LED lamp operated via an AC dimmer module. A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is incorporated to measure light intensity. The RS-485 protocol ensures consistent and reliable data transmission, enhancing the stability and robustness of the lighting system.
The Raspberry Pi is the central server that hosts applications developed using .NET Core. It facilitates bi-directional communication with the Arduino and NodeMCU boards, which independently manage their respective sensors and actuators. This modular architecture underscores the system’s scalability and flexibility, enabling seamless integration of diverse protocols and hardware components.
Figure 2 illustrates the hardware setup designed for testing the software. The safety and security system incorporates motion, sound, flame detection, and gas sensors to ensure environmental safety, while the lighting subsystem includes components for precise illumination control. The HVAC subsystem managed through MQTT integrates sensors for temperature, humidity, and air quality alongside a fan for environmental regulation.

4.2. Software Developed for the Smart Building System

Sensor and actuator information is provided in JSON format using Thing Description (TD), one of the WoT’s fundamental components. The WoT Gateway manages HTTP requests from the web application to the corresponding URL addresses.

4.2.1. Rest API

In this study, a REST (Representational State Transfer) API was developed using the ASP.NET Core Web API project within the Visual Studio environment. REST, as a foundational component of the Web of Things (WoT) architecture, offers a lightweight and flexible solution for integrating IoT devices. Controllers, including sensors and actuators, were implemented in C# to handle HTTP requests for each device. Server-side configuration files managed the retrieval and updating of sensor data and actuator states, facilitating seamless communication within the system.
REST enabled the system to integrate devices through an HTTP-based communication model, ensuring low latency and flexible and efficient data exchange. This approach provided a standardized method for interaction between heterogeneous devices, improving interoperability and simplifying system configuration.
The system employed the JSON Web Token (JWT) standard in conjunction with Microsoft Identity libraries to ensure data security. Authentication and authorization were implemented using username–password credentials, with the ASP.NET Core Authorize feature providing additional security. Role-based access restrictions ensured that only authorized users could perform specific actions. For instance, administrators were granted control over actuators and the ability to define rules, while regular users were limited to viewing sensor data and receiving alarm notifications. Figure 3 illustrates the server and client interaction within the system [9,32,33].
The hardware components used in the experimental setup were carefully chosen to meet the requirements of the smart building system. The Raspberry Pi 4 served as the primary processing unit, enabling integration across multiple protocols with high computational capacity. This cost-effective solution also provided scalability and flexibility, making it suitable for various system configurations.
The Arduino Uno managed data from lighting sensors and controlled dimmer modules via the RS-485 protocol. Its modular design and extensive peripheral support made it ideal for managing specific subsystems. Similarly, the NodeMCU (ESP8266) played a critical role in the HVAC subsystem, transmitting temperature and humidity data to the Raspberry Pi using the MQTT protocol. Its low energy consumption and built-in Wi-Fi functionality made it well-suited for remote data transmission [39].
The selection of these hardware components prioritized ease of integration and scalability. A WoT Gateway facilitated seamless communication between devices and protocols, ensuring smooth interoperability. This design approach effectively addressed the diverse needs of the system while offering significant advantages in terms of functionality and adaptability for smart building applications.

4.2.2. Worker Service

In this study, a versatile background application was created on the Raspberry Pi using .NET Core, offering multiple functionalities, such as real-time data transfer, periodic storage of sensor data, execution of predefined plans, rule implementation for environmental control, and email notifications to users. The application allows for customization and simultaneous notifications to multiple users, providing efficient and secure data handling. Overall, it serves as a multifunctional solution for real-time services with a focus on flexibility and data management.

4.3. Web Application Development for Smart Building System

Web, mobile, or desktop applications can be developed to utilize the server-side API as a data source. In this study, a web application was developed using the Model–View–Controller (MVC) concept, enabling users to monitor and control the entire system through their web browsers or smartphones.
The Smart Building System can be accessed and controlled through a web application, which can be viewed on both desktop and mobile devices. The website is designed to be responsive, ensuring users can access it on various screen sizes without any issues. With SignalR, multiple users can view real-time data without needing to refresh the page. The application notifies users through visual and audible alarms in case of an emergency. On the left side of the web page, there are dedicated sections for directions, planning, and rule management for the system.

5. Evaluation and Testing of the Smart Building System

Command-sending and sensor information-reading tests were performed to validate the functionality of the application framework. WoT Gateway tests were conducted to obtain and control device status information using the Postman application [40] and to observe the response of different system components according to the established protocol. The comparison between the response times of GET and POST requests is illustrated in Figure 4. The graph shows the average response times of GET and POST requests for different data sizes and numbers of requests. The chart demonstrates that the response times for both GET and POST requests increase with larger data sizes and a higher number of requests.
It is important to note that adding authentication and authorization to a .NET Core API is essential for securing access to sensitive data and features. However, this can lead to additional processing required to authenticate and authorize each request, potentially increasing response times. To minimize the negative impact on response times, optimizing the implementation of authentication and authorization in a .NET Core API is recommended.
On the other hand, we conducted tests to evaluate the Worker Service program that was created. When a flammable gas was detected, the email notification feature became functional. We also tested the application’s ability to write relevant commands to files at the specified operating times for the actuators, check the conditions in the rule table, and update the relevant files based on simple calculations.
The performance of SignalR requests for the .NET Core API is illustrated in Figure 5, which depicts the average response times for varying data sizes and numbers of requests. As shown, response times generally increase with larger data sizes and higher request volumes, highlighting the impact of workload intensity on communication latency.
To further evaluate the system performance, detailed tests were conducted under varying load conditions to measure the response times of the MQTT, RS-485, and Bluetooth protocols. These protocols, commonly used in industrial applications, were tested with a consistent data size of 100 bytes. The results revealed that MQTT achieved an average response time of 8 milliseconds, RS-485 demonstrated a faster response time of 5 milliseconds, and Bluetooth exhibited a significantly higher latency of 40 milliseconds. These findings are summarized in Figure 6.
The analysis underscores the suitability of each protocol for specific use cases within the system. For instance, RS-485, with its low latency, is ideal for scenarios requiring real-time communication over longer distances, while MQTT’s lightweight design makes it suitable for low-bandwidth applications. Conversely, Bluetooth, despite its higher latency, remains effective for short-range, low-energy applications.
Scalability tests were also performed by increasing the number of connected nodes and analyzing the impact on communication performance. The results demonstrated that MQTT maintained low latency at lower node counts but exhibited a linear increase in response times beyond a certain threshold. RS-485 showed stable performance even with additional nodes, highlighting its reliability for scalable systems. Bluetooth, on the other hand, was more sensitive to node increases, with latency rising significantly as the network expanded.
These evaluations confirm the robustness and adaptability of the developed smart building architecture for real-world applications. Considering factors such as communication protocol, data size, transmission speed, and reliability, the system can be tailored to meet specific requirements while ensuring optimal performance. The insights gained from this analysis validate the architectural design and provide valuable guidance for protocol selection in industrial and automation settings.

6. Conclusions and Future Work

This study demonstrates the effectiveness of the Web of Things (WoT) in enhancing interoperability and communication standards in IoT projects. It offers a user-friendly solution for development and reprogramming, making it accessible to non-programmers. Despite minor delays of approximately 30 milliseconds in data transmission caused by web protocols, these are negligible in most scenarios and do not significantly impact the user experience. Data security is ensured through encryption.
The Worker Service application efficiently manages tasks on IoT devices using .NET technologies and various standards. This study provides a proof-of-concept for utilizing WoT and .NET Core in IoT projects, showcasing enhanced interoperability, simplified development, and improved data security. Potential applications include improving process efficiency and enabling communication between smart buildings in smart cities.
Future work will focus on optimizing data transmission, minimizing delays, and validating the system in real-world IoT deployments. Further exploration of additional applications and use cases for WoT and .NET Core will be essential for advancing IoT. This study establishes a foundation for using WoT and .NET Core in IoT projects, with an emphasis on interoperability, simplified development, and data security. Continued research and innovation will be crucial to unlocking their full potential in shaping the future of IoT.

Author Contributions

Methodology, N.E. and T.C.A.; Formal analysis, N.E. and M.S.; Investigation, M.S.; Resources, M.S.; Writing—original draft, N.E.; Writing—review & editing, M.S.; Visualization, T.C.A.; Funding acquisition, T.C.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Figure 1. Smart buildings with intelligent features [4,6].
Figure 1. Smart buildings with intelligent features [4,6].
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Figure 2. Hardware diagram designed for smart building system.
Figure 2. Hardware diagram designed for smart building system.
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Figure 3. Server–Client operation.
Figure 3. Server–Client operation.
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Figure 4. Average response times of GET and POST requests for Thing Descriptions.
Figure 4. Average response times of GET and POST requests for Thing Descriptions.
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Figure 5. Average response time of SignalR using WebSocket protocol.
Figure 5. Average response time of SignalR using WebSocket protocol.
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Figure 6. Average response time of the MQTT, Bluetooth, and RS-485 protocols.
Figure 6. Average response time of the MQTT, Bluetooth, and RS-485 protocols.
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Table 1. The evolution of IoT in smart buildings: past, present, and future [10,11].
Table 1. The evolution of IoT in smart buildings: past, present, and future [10,11].
PeriodKey DevelopmentsApplication AreasChallenges and Opportunities
2000–2010The foundations of IoT were established, with advancements in wireless communication capabilities.HVAC; basic security systemsLimited technological infrastructure; restricted device connectivity
2010–2020Rapid growth in the number of IoT devices and the emergence of the smart building concept.Lighting automation, smart energy management, remote accessDevice heterogeneity; data security concerns
2020–2025Integration of IoT devices and development of standards; adoption of frameworks such as the WoT.Advanced building management systems; user-focused smart applicationsProtocol compatibility, scalability, and data privacy issues
2025 and beyondLarge-scale adoption of IoT devices; integration with smart cities.Energy efficiency optimization; AI-powered building automationBig data analytics, environmentally sustainable architecture, and opportunities for new business models
Table 2. Key international standards for IoT and smart buildings [15,16,17].
Table 2. Key international standards for IoT and smart buildings [15,16,17].
StandardDescriptionApplication Areas
IEEE 802.11 [18]Wireless Local Area Network (Wi-Fi) standard enabling fast data transfer for IoT devicesSecurity systems, HVAC, lighting control
IEEE 802.15.4 [19]Low-data-rate wireless communication protocol forming the basis of Zigbee and Thread.Sensor networks, smart home devices
Zigbee AllianceLow-power and reliable IoT protocol.Lighting automation, energy management
BACnetData communication protocol for building automation systems.HVAC, lighting, fire alarm systems
MQTTLightweight messaging protocol for low-bandwidth IoT data exchange.HVAC, remote monitoring, and control
CoAPREST-based protocol designed for constrained bandwidth environments.Sensor devices, energy efficiency applications
ISO/IEC 14543-3 [20]Standard protocol for home and building automation (KNX-based).Lighting, HVAC, energy management
Table 3. Comparison of .NET Core and other programming languages: performance, scalability, security, and community support [17].
Table 3. Comparison of .NET Core and other programming languages: performance, scalability, security, and community support [17].
Criterion.NET CoreJavaPythonNode.js
PerformanceHigh, excels in JSON serializationStable, benefits from JVM optimizationsModerate, less efficient for CPU-intensive tasksStrong, particularly in I/O operations
ScalabilityHigh, supports asynchronous programmingHigh, supported by a large communityModerate, mainly focused on data analyticsHigh, leverages asynchronous event loops
SecurityBuilt-in authentication and encryptionStrong, widely used in enterprise applicationsRelies on external libraries for securityGood, dependent on Node.js libraries
Community SupportStrong, backed by Microsoft and open-source contributorsExtensive, with long-standing popularityBroad, primarily in data scienceWidespread, favored in web development
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Ekren, N.; Sensoy, M.; Akinci, T.C. Smart Buildings Using Web of Things with .NET Core: A Framework for Inter-Device Connectivity and Secure Data Transfer. Information 2025, 16, 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/info16020123

AMA Style

Ekren N, Sensoy M, Akinci TC. Smart Buildings Using Web of Things with .NET Core: A Framework for Inter-Device Connectivity and Secure Data Transfer. Information. 2025; 16(2):123. https://doi.org/10.3390/info16020123

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ekren, Nazmi, Mehmet Sensoy, and Tahir Cetin Akinci. 2025. "Smart Buildings Using Web of Things with .NET Core: A Framework for Inter-Device Connectivity and Secure Data Transfer" Information 16, no. 2: 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/info16020123

APA Style

Ekren, N., Sensoy, M., & Akinci, T. C. (2025). Smart Buildings Using Web of Things with .NET Core: A Framework for Inter-Device Connectivity and Secure Data Transfer. Information, 16(2), 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/info16020123

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