Religious Education as a Sustainable Approach to Sociocultural Risk Reduction in Multicultural South Korea: Developing a Curriculum Framework for Teaching About Korean Religions in General Education

Abstract

Discussions of school safety management have often centered on physical and infrastructure-related risks and have not adequately addressed sociocultural risks emerging from South Korea’s gradual transition toward a multicultural and multireligious society. To address this gap, we pose two interrelated research questions: (1) In what ways do these sociocultural risks present challenges that existing frameworks do not cover? (2) What curriculum framework can be developed to foster religious literacy as a sustainable approach to sociocultural risk reduction? In response, we first use the term sociocultural risk to identify a distinct dimension within the landscape of school safety policy and propose religious literacy education as a response to these emerging challenges. Adapting Joseph Schwab’s practical approach to curriculum development, particularly through deliberation on the interactions among his four commonplaces of education, we then design Exploring Korean Religions, a general education course that complements a curriculum for teaching about world religions. By examining the historical development of religious traditions in Korea (e.g., Buddhism, Confucianism, Korean folk beliefs, and Christianity) and their contemporary relevance, this course enables Korean students to reflect on the religious foundations of their own culture while helping students from diverse backgrounds develop a deeper understanding of the religious and cultural landscape of Korean society. Through this educational approach, this study contributes a distinct perspective on addressing sociocultural dimensions of safety challenges by demonstrating the importance of religious education in fostering religious literacy and interreligious understanding in multicultural South Korea and beyond.

1. Introduction

Discussions of disaster management have often centered on hazards such as natural disasters and accidents, emphasizing physical infrastructure, emergency response protocols, and recovery systems (e.g., Feng and Cui 2021; Khan et al. 2023; Liu et al. 2020). However, scholars have increasingly recognized that disasters are not limited to those hazards related to various physical factors; threats and risks emerging from sociocultural dynamics can also pose significant challenges to community resilience and long-term social sustainability (e.g., Imperiale and Vanclay 2021; O’Keefe et al. 1976; Peters 2022). In this context, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 calls for measures that address vulnerability across multiple dimensions, emphasizing “the economic, social, health, cultural and educational resilience of persons, communities and countries” (UNISDR 2015, p. 11). This broader perspective, we argue, requires approaches that address not only risks associated with various physical factors but also those related to sociocultural dimensions of safety and sustainability, such as ongoing conflicts emerging from cultural and religious differences in increasingly diverse societies.

South Korea offers a valuable context for examining this expanded perspective. Over the past decade, the country has developed comprehensive school safety policies in response to critical incidents, most notably the Sewol ferry disaster of 16 April 2014, which claimed 304 lives, including those of 250 high school students on a school trip1. This tragedy exposed significant deficiencies in emergency response protocols and safety education, sparking public demand for more systematic approaches to school safety. In response, the Korean Ministry of Education (2015, 2020) implemented substantial reforms, including the Seven Standards for School Safety Education in 2015 and a series of basic plans for preventing school safety accidents from 2016 to the present. However, while these initiatives have strengthened the country’s capacity for addressing various physical and infrastructure-related hazards, South Korea has simultaneously experienced another significant transformation that current school safety frameworks do not fully address.

This transformation stems from the country’s gradual shift toward a multicultural and multireligious society, with educational institutions now serving increasingly diverse student populations, including growing numbers of international students in higher education (Gu and Kim 2025a, 2025b). While such cultural and religious diversity can enrich educational communities, it also creates sources of tension. Differences in customs, communication styles, and religious practices can generate various social conflicts in educational settings and beyond, particularly when different groups within a society hold divergent assumptions about appropriate behavior or social participation. Religious beliefs, for instance, can act as both a unifying and dividing force within communities, fostering internal cohesion through shared practices while also generating social fragmentation when different groups encounter one another (Kimani 2024; Malović and Vujica 2021). These conflicts, if unaddressed, erode the social cohesion essential to the sustainability of South Korean society. Current school safety frameworks, however, do not adequately address these challenges. Focused primarily on physical and infrastructure-related hazards, these frameworks offer limited guidance for understanding, preventing, or addressing such conflicts.

In articulating this perspective, we draw especially on a growing body of scholarship that expands the concept of risk beyond physical hazards to encompass social and cultural dimensions, including sociocultural conflicts in increasingly diverse societies (e.g., Cutter et al. 2003; Imperiale and Vanclay 2021; O’Keefe et al. 1976; Peters 2022; Peters and Kelman 2020; UNISDR 2015; Wisner et al. 2004). Given the nature of the challenges inherent in the ongoing multicultural transition in and beyond South Korea, we use the term sociocultural risk in this study to refer to threats to social cohesion and community well-being that arise from tensions and conflicts intertwined with cultural and religious differences in increasingly diverse societies. Differing from risks associated with physical hazards, sociocultural risks emerge not from external events but from multifaceted dynamics of social interaction.

Based on this conceptual understanding of sociocultural risk, we propose that religious literacy education can serve as a proactive approach for tackling these emerging challenges. Religious literacy involves neither memorizing specific doctrines nor adopting particular religious commitments2. Rather, it entails developing the ability to understand the contexts in which diverse religious traditions and relevant discourses have been constructed and to interpret and engage critically with diverse religious phenomena in our society (Hannam et al. 2020; Moore 2007, 2015; Prothero 2007; Wright 1993). We suggest that cultivating such literacy among students, including both Korean and international students studying in South Korea, can help them to navigate ongoing tensions and conflicts associated with cultural and religious diversity. From this perspective, religious literacy education contributes to societal sustainability in South Korea by addressing those conflicts before they escalate, serving a proactive function in risk management within and beyond the current school safety framework.

Therefore, this study addresses two interrelated questions: (1) in what ways do sociocultural risks emerging from the multicultural and multireligious transition in South Korea present challenges that existing school safety frameworks do not adequately address, and (2) what curriculum framework for religious studies in general education can we develop to foster religious literacy as a sustainable approach to addressing sociocultural risks in (but not limited to) South Korean university settings? To address these questions, we first trace the development of school safety policy in South Korea and examine its current characteristics, especially its focus on risks and infrastructure management related to physical factors. Building on this examination, we develop a curriculum framework for religious studies in general education, drawing on Joseph Schwab’s influential practical approach to curriculum development. We apply this framework to the design of a general education course at the university level, Exploring Korean Religions, detailing its structure, weekly topics, and core contents. In doing so, this study considers the implications of this educational approach for sustainable risk management in its sociocultural dimension, particularly its contribution to social cohesion in an increasingly diverse South Korean society.

2. School Safety Policy in South Korea: Development and Current Characteristics

2.1. Development of School Safety Policy in South Korea

School safety issues have become increasingly prominent as contemporary society confronts unpredictable challenges such as climate change, infectious disease outbreaks, and various emerging risks that currently characterize our daily lives. These challenges often manifest in various ways, creating safety concerns that affect multiple dimensions of social life, including educational settings. In the case of South Korea, these challenges have emerged from the intersection of rapid modernization, changing demographic patterns, and critical incidents that exposed significant vulnerabilities in existing safety systems. The evolving complexity of these risks has necessitated taking more systematic approaches to ensuring school safety both within and beyond educational contexts.

School safety policies in South Korea have undergone significant transformation over the last decade, reflecting emerging risks and societal expectations. Initial policy efforts focused primarily on diverse safety issues related to natural disasters and physical hazards through basic infrastructure management, building codes, and accident response protocols. However, the tragic sinking of the Sewol ferry on 16 April 2014, marked a critical turning point for school safety policies in South Korea. This maritime disaster claimed 304 lives, including 250 students from Danwon High School who were traveling to Jeju Island for a school trip. This tragic incident exposed critical deficiencies in emergency response protocols and curricula for safety education. The deficiencies thus sparked public demand for more rigorous safety education, fundamentally transforming societal expectations regarding educational and institutional responsibility for public safety.

The Korean Ministry of Education (2015) responded to this demand by implementing substantial reforms in education policies for school safety. In February 2015, the ministry established the “Seven Standards for School Safety Education,” creating a systematic framework for school safety education. For instance, at the K-12 level, this policy mandated a minimum of 51 h of annual safety education distributed across seven domains: daily life safety, traffic safety, violence and personal safety, drug and cyber addiction prevention, disaster safety, occupational safety, and first aid. This framework established an institutional foundation for systematic safety education across educational institutions. Building on this framework, the Korean Ministry of Education has systematically developed a series of comprehensive basic plans for preventing school safety accidents. These policy developments include the First Basic Plan for School Safety Accident Prevention (2016–2018), the Second Basic Plan for School Safety Accident Prevention (2019–2021), the Third Basic Plan for School Safety Accident Prevention (2022–2024), and the Fourth Basic Plan for School Safety Accident Prevention (2025–2027), each spanning three-year periods to ensure continuous policy implementation and refinement. Throughout these successive plans, the ministry has consistently reinforced experience-based safety education approaches and preventive strategies, demonstrating sustained commitment to comprehensive school safety policy development.

2.2. Current Approaches and Characteristics of School Safety Policy and Education in South Korea

Given the ongoing development of safety policies, their constituents, and their specific procedures in South Korea, we find that the current landscape of school safety policy and education concentrates primarily on physical disaster preparedness, reactive protocols, and infrastructure management. These priorities reflect the accumulated experiences of educational institutions in responding to tangible and observable risks. For instance, the COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the development of health-monitoring protocols, remote learning infrastructures, and space management procedures that have now become permanent features of frameworks for ensuring school safety. Moreover, current school safety initiatives prioritize tangible safety measures that can be systematically implemented and monitored across educational institutions. This focus includes comprehensive building safety standards, emergency equipment installations, structural safety assessments, and environmental hazard mitigation strategies. These approaches also emphasize risk reduction and recovery capabilities, establishing effective protocols for identifying potential hazards, implementing preventive measures, and ensuring rapid recovery following school safety incidents. Aligned with these approaches, current school safety education emphasizes practical, real-life–based teaching and learning that prepares students for actual disaster situations. This approach engages students in experiential learning that connects academic knowledge with various situations in their daily lives. To do so, many educational institutions at all levels strive to develop curricula for safety education tailored to their local contexts, addressing particular risks and challenges faced by their communities including, importantly, natural disasters, traffic safety concerns, and facility-specific hazards.

In other words, the current policy and educational emphasis on areas associated with physical risks and infrastructure-related hazards such as natural disasters, traffic accidents, and facility management reflect an approach that prioritizes risks that institutions can directly observe, measure, and address using existing safety protocols. This orientation shapes the ways in which educational institutions conceptualize safety challenges and develop corresponding responses, establishing particular frameworks for identifying, categorizing, and managing risks within institutional contexts. Focusing on these domains, educational institutions often pay attention to clear procedures and systematic responses, while curricula for safety education similarly concentrate on these risks through improved pedagogical methods. Consequently, current policies and educational programs for school safety focus primarily on enhancing students’ abilities for risk awareness and adaptive decision making regarding the issues within these established physical and infrastructure safety domains, enabling students to navigate such threats.

2.3. Beyond Physical and Infrastructure-Related Risks: Non-Physical Factors in School Safety

While the development of safety policy and education focuses primarily on physical risks and infrastructure-related issues, recent challenges related to school safety extend far beyond these observable and measurable physical factors. We refer to such challenges as sociocultural risks, denoting risks to social cohesion and community well-being that emerge from cultural and religious differences, which often generate conflicts in increasingly diverse societies. In conceptualizing this term, we draw on scholarship in disaster management that increasingly recognizes that a complete assessment of risk requires attention not only to physical hazards but also to the sociocultural conditions that shape vulnerability (e.g., Imperiale and Vanclay 2021; O’Keefe et al. 1976; Wisner et al. 2004). For example, Cutter et al. (2003) developed the Social Vulnerability Index, demonstrating that socioeconomic and demographic factors influence the capacity of communities to prepare for, respond to, and recover from disasters. Subsequent scholarship has further expanded the scope of vulnerability assessment beyond physical infrastructure (Imperiale and Vanclay 2021; Peters 2022; Peters and Kelman 2020). While these studies have advanced the understanding of social vulnerability related to safety challenges, their primary focus remains on socioeconomic and demographic factors such as poverty, inequality, and access to resources. With this conceptual understanding, this study uses the term sociocultural risks to extend this line of scholarship by including and highlighting a dimension that has received less attention: tensions and conflicts that arise from cultural and religious differences in increasingly diverse societies, posing various risks to social cohesion.

South Korea, with its ongoing transition toward a multicultural and multireligious society, offers an illustrative context for examining such sociocultural risks. This transition has generated new forms of social conflicts that emerge from differences in various aspects, including language, customs, and religions (Gu and Kim 2025a)3. This shift is also reflected in recent demographic data. According to the Korean Ministry of Data and Statistics (2025) and the Korean Ministry of Justice (2025), the number of international students studying at educational institutions in South Korea increased from 96,357 in 2015 to 263,774 in 2024, and the number of multicultural households grew from 299,241 to 439,304 during the same period. The conflicts associated with this transition often create tensions that affect safety issues across educational institutions in complex ways. For instance, differences in customs regarding social interactions can create or heighten tensions within and beyond educational communities. When various groups from different cultural backgrounds hold divergent assumptions about appropriate behavior, communication styles, or community participation, these differences can often develop into social conflicts that disrupt and threaten the school safety and well-being of students, faculty, staff, and other members of communities. Given that educational institutions serve as spaces where diverse communities interact within shared settings, such institutions become particularly susceptible to these types of social conflicts.

Many educational institutions in South Korea, in that sense, face challenges in managing social and cultural conflicts that threaten school safety—conflicts that cannot be adequately addressed through the existing safety framework designed for physical and infrastructure-related hazards. While these frameworks and research initiatives have made substantial progress in reducing physical risks through systematic protocols and infrastructure improvements, most educational institutions generally lack effective approaches for understanding, preventing, and addressing conflicts that emerge from these non-physical factors. In other words, the frameworks developed for safety management, which prioritize physical and infrastructure-related risks, do not extend to conflicts rooted in social and cultural differences. This gap becomes particularly problematic as Korean society continues diversifying, thereby creating increasing sociocultural complexity for educational institutions. However, policy frameworks and institutional attention remain concentrated on physical and infrastructure-related safety issues.

Within this policy landscape, the Korean Ministry of Education has attempted to evolve school safety policy through collaborative partnerships with academic research institutions. In this context, the Research Institute of Comprehensive School Safety at Dongguk University assumed this responsibility in September 2023, taking school safety research and policy development in South Korea in new directions. Working in partnership with the Korean Ministry of Education, this institute has developed approaches to promote sustainable school safety in contemporary Korean society. These approaches aim to address complex and evolving safety challenges, including climate change, infectious disease outbreaks, and various societal risks, that require comprehensive strategies.

The research agenda of this institute includes approaching curriculum development by addressing the design and implementation of safety education programs across K-12 and higher education settings. As educational contexts continue to change and safety challenges become more varied and complex, this field investigates the ways in which safety education can adapt to these shifting conditions while maintaining educational effectiveness. South Korea’s gradual transition toward a multicultural society represents one such shift, as educational institutions now serve increasingly diverse student populations with varied cultural and religious backgrounds. This demographic change brings new complexities to school safety, particularly societal conflicts arising from religious and cultural differences that diminish societal sustainability in South Korea.

Given this increasing complexity, this study focuses primarily on religions as one of the crucial non-physical factors influencing ongoing safety issues in educational institutions, as well as contemporary South Korean society4. We suggest that religions intersect with school safety in complex ways that extend beyond the scope of current physical risk-centered frameworks and infrastructure improvements. Educational institutions in South Korea currently encounter diverse communities with members from various religious backgrounds. While these differences can create opportunities for cultural enrichment, they also present potential sources of conflicts. We therefore argue that the role of religions in school safety education becomes crucial as educational institutions continue serving increasingly multicultural populations, requiring approaches that extend beyond current frameworks centered on observable and measurable physical risks.

This need for new approaches highlights the importance of developing a curriculum for religious studies in general education, with religious literacy as its central goal, across South Korean universities. Religious literacy involves neither memorizing specific doctrines nor commitment to particular religious perspectives (Gu and Kim 2025a, 2025b). Rather, it entails developing the ability to understand the historical, social, and political contexts in which religious categories and discourses have been constructed and to interpret and engage critically with diverse religious phenomena based on this understanding. For this purpose, religious studies in general education need to foster students’ abilities across four interconnected dimensions: (1) knowledge—transcending the mere acquisition of information about histories, practices, and concepts related to religious traditions as facts; (2) interpretation—understanding the historical and constructed nature of the very classification categories of religion; (3) critical–ethical engagement—reflecting on what power relations and norms function through these classifications and narratives; and (4) coexistence—negotiating diverse beliefs and religious practices within shared public ethical frameworks. Based on these principles, we now turn to a curriculum framework for religious studies in general education and its application to course design.

3. Developing a Curriculum Framework for Religious Studies in General Education

3.1. A Curriculum Framework for a Contextual and Practical Approach to South Korean University Settings

As noted in previous sections, religious studies courses in general education provide an approach for addressing safety challenges in contemporary South Korea. General education, especially in the context of higher education, refers to a component of undergraduate curricula that provides students with a broad foundation of knowledge, literacy, and skills within and beyond their disciplinary specialization (Twombly 1992; Gu and Kim 2024, 2025a). As many studies indicate, general education serves to foster students as citizens with broader competencies, including the cultural understanding, analytical thinking, and communication skills necessary for civic participation (e.g., Aloi et al. 2003; Lin 2023; Shih 2019). Vander Schee (2011), for instance, specifically highlights that general education aims to educate citizens so that they are “better able to view diverse cultures, lifestyles, and backgrounds from objective and informed perspectives” (p. 382). Religious literacy, in this context, emerges as a critical dimension of these civic competencies, serving as an integral component of engagement with complex social issues where religious dynamics intersect, especially within the context of the gradual transition to a multicultural society. The value of religious studies in general education thus lies in developing competencies, including religious literacy, that enable students to navigate the religious conflicts emerging in (but not limited to) university settings. Such conflicts represent safety challenges that current physical safety protocols alone cannot adequately manage. In this regard, many studies across diverse contexts, including several European countries, have highlighted the role of religious education in fostering interreligious understanding, intercultural sensitivity, and social cohesion in pluralistic societies (e.g., Abu-Nimer and Smith 2016; Filipović and Jurišić 2024; Lapis 2025; Malović and Vujica 2021). These studies underscore the need for educational approaches that address cultural and religious diversity through structured curricula.

The structural features of general education further support this crucial value. The courses for general education are accessible to all students regardless of their majors or religious backgrounds. This accessibility brings together students with various cultural and religious experiences in shared learning spaces, where they encounter diverse perspectives within an academic framework. In such educational settings, students not only learn about diverse perspectives but also engage with them critically, deepening their understanding of the sociocultural phenomena they encounter (e.g., Bowman 2011; Denson et al. 2020; Gurin et al. 2002; Hurtado 2007). This type of learning experience becomes valuable not only for academic purposes but also for students’ future careers (Bowman et al. 2011), as graduates will need to navigate increasingly multicultural and multireligious professional environments in contemporary South Korea. These structural features create effective educational conditions for developing religious literacy, a competence essential for preventing and addressing ongoing safety issues in a multireligious society. Taken together, religious studies courses in general education emerge not as an optional enrichment but as an institutional response to the safety challenges within and beyond the current landscape of higher education in South Korea.

Building upon the need for religious studies in general education, we have been developing curriculum frameworks for teaching students about religions in South Korean university settings. In our previous work, we developed a curriculum framework for teaching about world religions that engages with the concept of religion alongside diverse religious traditions and discourses to foster students’ religious literacy as a competency for understanding and navigating complex dynamics in multicultural and multireligious society (Gu and Kim 2025a, 2025b). This study extends that effort with a complementary course design for teaching about Korean religions that examines the ways in which religious traditions have been received and transformed within the specific context of Korea. To develop this course, we draw on the substantial works of Joseph Schwab, particularly his practical approach (Schwab 1971, 1973, 1983, [1970] 2013). Through his seminal contributions to the field of curriculum studies, Schwab suggests an approach to curriculum development that begins with concrete educational situations and their specific challenges. This practical orientation involves in-depth examination of the particular circumstances in which education and curriculum development occur. As Schwab ([1970] 2013) explains, “[t]he subject matter of the practical, … is always something taken as concrete and particular and treated as indefinitely susceptible to circumstance” (p. 593). From this perspective, this approach emphasizes that an effective curriculum framework emerges through deliberative engagement with the dynamic interaction among the “four commonplaces” of education—the learner, the teacher, the subject matter, and the milieu—as educational circumstances “that include the school and classroom in which the learning and teaching are supposed to occur” (Schwab 1973, p. 503; see also Schwab 1983).

Adopting this practical approach, we developed a curriculum framework for teaching about Korean religions in general education. Given the safety concerns entwined with ongoing religious conflicts emerging from South Korea’s multicultural transition, this approach engages with the specific circumstances of many Korean universities, which require in-depth contextual examination and deliberation. Taking these circumstances as our concrete educational situations, we examined the characteristics and (potential) constraints of each element and their interactions crucial for establishing the curriculum framework: (1) the learner—students’ lack of religious literacy and their motivations for enrolling courses in general education; (2) the teacher (or the instructor in the context of higher education)—the educator’s deliberative role in making contextual decisions for courses to balance scholarly rigor in religious studies with the specific needs of university students in South Korea; (3) the subject matter—critical engagement with the concepts of religion and Korean religions themselves while providing substantive knowledge about diverse religious traditions, discourses, and relevant phenomena; and (4) the milieu—prevalent institutional constraints including limited instructional time (i.e., a 16-week timeframe per semester) and the absence of religious studies departments in most universities. Based on our consideration of how these four elements interact and influence each other within university settings in South Korea, we developed the foundation of our curriculum framework, which was designed to balance academic, pedagogical, and institutional demands. In doing so, our curriculum framework strives to address current safety challenges entwined with ongoing religious conflicts by developing students’ religious literacy while ensuring adaptability for diverse institutional contexts and evolving circumstances across universities in South Korea. Building on this curriculum framework, the following section presents the specific course design, including its structure, content, and pedagogical elements.

3.2. Exploring Korean Religions: Course Design and Contents

3.2.1. Course Overview and Objectives

This course, Exploring Korean Religions, is a general education course designed for first- and second-year undergraduate students regardless of their major and requires no prior knowledge of religious studies. The course explores the historical development and cultural characteristics of religious traditions in Korea from the Three Kingdoms period to the present. Class topics thus include Buddhism, Confucianism, Korean folk beliefs, the transmission and establishment of Christianity, and religiosity and various religious discourses in contemporary South Korean society5.

This curriculum framework aims to achieve broad applicability across diverse university settings in South Korea. In addressing the country’s gradual transition toward a multicultural and multireligious society, we recognize the need to teach Korean religions at the level of general education. Such a need applies not only to universities with departments of religious studies (e.g., Seoul National University, Sogang University) or those with religiously affiliated colleges (e.g., College of Buddhist Studies at Dongguk University, College of Confucian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, College of Theology at Yonsei University) but also to institutions without such specialized programs. Furthermore, the framework complements the general education course for teaching about world religions: while the latter addresses major religious traditions in a global context, this course on Korean religions examines the ways in which those traditions have been received and transformed within the specific context of Korea. Taking these two courses in sequence or concurrently would be an effective way to foster religious literacy in students. In this sense, this study serves not only to develop a course on Korean religions but also as foundational research for establishing a religious studies curriculum for general education in diverse university settings.

Aligned with these aims, the course is designed with two complementary purposes. First, the course is grounded in the recognition that Korean students need to understand their own religious culture as much as they study world religions. Many Korean students, although interested in world religions, often possess only a superficial understanding of the religious foundations of their own culture. For instance, some Koreans perform ancestral rites without recognizing them as Confucian rituals or visit Buddhist temples without understanding basic Buddhist teachings. In such circumstances, when asked to explain Korean culture to those unfamiliar with it, they may struggle to convey its religious dimensions. Second, the course responds to the increasing number of international students enrolled in South Korean universities. Although many international students enter university having developed interest in South Korea through Korean language learning or K-culture including K-dramas and K-pop, their access to the deeper religious traditions underlying Korean culture remains limited. The course thus provides an opportunity for Korean students to reflect on their own culture as well as for international students to deepen their understanding of Korean culture, thereby creating a space in which both groups can learn together. The course description outlines these purposes as follows:

What are the religious foundations that have shaped Korean society and culture? This course addresses such questions by exploring the historical development and ongoing dynamics of religions in Korea, including Buddhism, Confucianism, Korean folk beliefs, and Christianity. Through cultural heritage, rituals, and seasonal customs, students examine how these traditions continue to influence contemporary Korean life. The course cultivates the civic capacity to respect religious diversity and provides a foundation for understanding Korean society, both for Korean students reflecting on their own cultural heritage and international students seeking to navigate the religious and cultural landscape of the country in which they live and study.

To achieve these complementary purposes, the course establishes five primary objectives: (1) understanding the historical development of traditional religions in Korea (e.g., Buddhism, Confucianism, and Korean folk beliefs) through different historical periods; (2) grasping the religious foundations of Korean culture through cultural heritage, rituals, and seasonal customs; (3) learning about the transmission and establishment of Christianity (i.e., Catholicism and Protestantism) in Korean society; (4) cultivating attitudes of religious tolerance and mutual respect based on objective understanding of diverse religious traditions; and (5) developing the ability to explain Korean religious culture to those unfamiliar with it.

3.2.2. Class Topics and Contents

Given the typical structure of general education in South Korean universities, we designed this course as a three-credit class with two meetings per week within a 16-week semester. The course consists of two parts, with the midterm period acting as the dividing point. Part I follows a chronological approach covering ancient beliefs through the Joseon dynasty (Weeks 1–8), whereas Part II adopts a thematic approach examining Korean folk beliefs, Christianity, and religiosity in contemporary South Korean society (Weeks 9–14). Week 15 is allocated for group presentations, and Week 16 for the final examination. The weekly class topics and contents for Part I are as defined in

Table 1. Part I: Class topics and specific contents (Weeks 1–8).

Week	Class Topic	Class Contents
1	Introduction	Overview of Korean religions: Korea as a multireligious society and the relationship between religion and culture Understand the course objectives and guidelines
2	The Dangun Myth and Ancient Beliefs	Learn about the structure and totemistic elements of the Dangun myth (e.g., bear and tiger) Compare with other East Asian myths, such as the Japanese heavenly descent myth (i.e., Tenson Kōrin) and the Chinese Yellow Emperor myth (i.e., Huangdi) Explore connections to Siberian shamanism and historical evidence of ancient Korean tribal beliefs
3	Buddhism and Cultural Heritage in the Three Kingdoms Period	Learn about the transmission of Buddhism to the Three Kingdoms and the formation of hogukbulgyo (state-protection Buddhism) Explore major cultural heritage sites and their significance: Seokguram Grotto, Bulguksa Temple, Mireuksa Temple, and Hwangnyongsa Temple
4	Buddhism and Cultural Heritage in the Goryeo Dynasty	Understand Buddhism as the state religion Learn about the Cheontae and Jogye orders Explore the Tripitaka Koreana, Goryeo Buddhist paintings, and temple architecture: Buseoksa Temple and Sudeoksa Temple
5	Introduction and Establishment of Confucianism in the Joseon Dynasty	Learn about the adoption of Neo-Confucianism and the policy of sungyueokbul (promoting Confucianism and suppressing Buddhism) Understand the rise of the literati and the Confucian ideology of governance and social order
6	Confucian Rituals and Cultural Heritage	Learn about Jongmyo Shrine and Sajik Altar Explore hyanggyo (local Confucian schools) and seowon (Neo-Confucian academies) Understand gwanhonsangje (the Four Ceremonial Occasions): coming-of-age, wedding, funeral, and ancestral rites Examine ritual culture and the Confucian way of life
7	Religion and Popular Beliefs in the Joseon Dynasty	Learn about sanjungbulgyo (mountain Buddhism) under the suppression policy Explore Buddhist patronage by naemyeongbu (royal women of the inner court) and the changing social roles of monks Understand the syncretism of Buddhism and shamanism among commoners
8	Midterm Period: Preparation for Group Presentations

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We designed Week 1 to lay the foundation for the entire course. University settings in South Korea often face practical constraints, as the first class of the semester rarely extends beyond a brief orientation. Moreover, covering extensive content in the opening session is ineffective because students typically only finalize their course registration by Week 2. Given these circumstances, Week 1 should prioritize establishing the overall direction of the course beyond what the syllabus can convey. In reality, students’ decisions to enroll in general education courses are often influenced by various factors such as schedule coordination, movement patterns between classes, and failure to secure preferred courses in required credit areas. For instructors, generating interest that can motivate students to remain enrolled throughout the semester thus becomes an important task, alongside presenting the fundamental direction of this course. Therefore, this session explains why the topic of Korean religions matters today, with concrete examples illustrating how understanding religious contexts helps when explaining Korean culture to those unfamiliar with it. The session also presents South Korea as a multireligious society using statistical data and explains the course structure and evaluation criteria.

Week 2 deepens the question of what religion is, introduced in Week 1, using specific cases. The session begins with a brief review of Week 1’s content for students who finalized their enrollment during the course registration adjustment period. Using the Dangun myth as a central text, this class explores the characteristics of ancient Korean beliefs, paying particular attention to the totemistic elements represented by the bear and tiger symbols. Here, comparison serves as the key pedagogical approach. Rather than treating the Dangun myth as an isolated text, we compare it with other ancient East Asian foundation myths: the Japanese heavenly descent myth (i.e., Tenson Kōrin) and the Chinese Yellow Emperor myth (i.e., Huangdi). We also explore connections to Siberian shamanism to help students to understand that ancient Korean beliefs are linked to northern Asian cultural traditions. Through these comparisons, we aim to enable students to recognize both the distinctive features of Korean mythology and the universal elements shared across East Asian cultural traditions. This session also examines historical records of heaven worship rituals in Gojoseon (Kor. 고조선; Chi. 古朝鮮), Buyeo (Kor. 부여; Chi. 夫餘), and Samhan (Kor. 삼한; Chi. 三韓): yeonggo (Kor. 영고; Chi. 迎鼓), dongmaeng (Kor. 동맹; Chi. 東盟), and mucheon (Kor. 무천; Chi. 舞天). These rituals provide an important background for understanding the origins of Korean folk beliefs such as musok (Kor. 무속; Chi. 巫俗), which are covered in Part II of the course. Furthermore, this session examines the political and social functions that these rituals served in ancient states and encourages students to examine how such traditions continued or transformed throughout religious history in Korea.

Week 3 integrates the transmission of Buddhism during the Three Kingdoms period with its cultural heritage. The first part of this session explains the different periods and contexts of Buddhist transmission to each kingdom: Goguryeo (Kor. 고구려; Chi. 高句麗) in 372 CE, Baekje (Kor. 백제; Chi. 百濟) in 384 CE, and Silla (Kor. 신라; Chi. 新羅) in 527 CE. This session then examines how these differences relate to the political circumstances of each kingdom and introduces the concept of hogukbulgyo (Kor. 호국불교; Chi. 護國佛敎; state-protection Buddhism) to discuss the relationship between state power and Buddhism using examples such as the political significance of the Nine-Story Wooden Pagoda at Hwangnyongsa Temple and the connection between the Hwarangdo (Kor. 화랑도; Chi. 花郎徒; an elite warrior group of male youth) and Buddhism. The latter part of this session examines Buddhist cultural heritage from the Three Kingdoms period using visual materials. The session specifically explores the Buddhist worldview embedded in the structure and Buddha statue arrangement of Seokguram Grotto in Gyeongju, the spatial layout of Bulguksa Temple and its symbolic meaning, and the scale and significance of Mireuksa Temple in Iksan. Where possible, instructors utilize video or VR materials provided by the Korea Heritage Service to allow students to experience these actual spaces. For international students, instructors also provide information on cultural heritage site visits in Gyeongju and Iksan.

Week 4 addresses Buddhism during the Goryeo (Kor. 고려; Chi. 高麗) dynasty, when Buddhism reached its golden age as the state religion. This session covers the characteristics and development of Buddhism in Goryeo, along with its cultural heritage. Specifically, the session examines the institutional aspects of Buddhism in Goryeo: the bureaucratization of monks through the seunggwa (Kor. 승과; Chi. 僧科; monastic examination system), the economic foundation of temples through sawonjon (Kor. 사원전; Chi. 寺院田; temple land grants), and the significance of state Buddhist rituals such as the Yeondeunghoe (Kor. 연등회; Chi. 燃燈會; Lantern Lighting Festival) and the Palgwanhoe (Kor. 팔관회; Chi. 八關會). Regarding doctrine, this session focuses on the establishment of the Cheontae (Kor. 천태; Chi. 天台) and Jogye (Kor. 조계; Chi. 曹溪) orders. The class introduces Uicheon (Kor. 의천; Chi. 義天) and his establishment of the Cheontae order, as well as Jinul (Kor. 지눌; Chi. 知訥) and his formation of the Jogye order. The session then discusses their significance in Goryeo society and their influence on the subsequent development of Korean Buddhism. Regarding cultural heritage, the session addresses the background and significance of the Tripitaka Koreana. The class explains the role of hogukbulgyo (state-protection Buddhism) in creating the Tripitaka during the national crisis of the Mongol invasions, the scientific design of the Janggyeong Panjeon (Kor. 장경판전; Chi. 藏經板殿) at Haeinsa Temple, and the Tripitaka’s inscription on the UNESCO Memory of the World Register. The session also addresses the characteristics and esthetics of Buddhist paintings and temples from the Goryeo period, including the Buseoksa and Sudeoksa temples.

Week 5 marks a transition from Buddhism to Confucianism. It should be noted that scholarly debate exists regarding whether Confucianism can be defined as a religion within the category of world religions. For instance, based on the number of adherents, Confucianism can hardly be considered a world religion. Moreover, belief in transcendent beings, often considered a core element of religion, remains unclear in Confucianism. Nevertheless, this course addresses Confucianism because of its profound influence on Korean society. How contemporary South Koreans view family, education, and social relationships, for example, remain deeply connected to Confucian traditions. Given this context, the session examines the process through which Neo-Confucianism was adopted as the state ideology with the founding of the Joseon (Kor. 조선; Chi. 朝鮮) dynasty. The class explains the Confucian vision of the political forces behind this founding, the policy of sungyueokbul (Kor. 숭유억불; Chi. 崇儒抑佛; promoting Confucianism and suppressing Buddhism), and the rise of the sarim (Kor. 사림; Chi. 士林; the literati), along with the establishment of the Neo-Confucian social order. In particular, the session emphasizes that Confucianism was not merely a scholarly discipline but a force regulating the daily lives of people in Joseon, fulfilling religious functions. Specifically, the class explains how samgangoryun (Kor. 삼강오륜; Chi. 三綱五倫; the Three Bonds and Five Relationships), hyo (Kor. 효; Chi. 孝; filial piety), ye (Kor. 예; Chi. 禮; ritual propriety), and jangyuyuseo (Kor. 장유유서; Chi. 長幼有序; the Proper Order between Elders and Juniors) permeated all aspects of society. Furthermore, the session examines how these Confucian values have persisted or transformed in contemporary South Korean society.

While Week 5 addressed the introduction and establishment of Confucianism, Week 6 focuses on its rituals and cultural heritage. The session centers on jerye (Kor. 제례; Chi. 祭禮; ancestral rites), the core of Confucian ritual practice. The class introduces various levels of ancestral rites: state rites such as the jongmyodaeje (Kor. 종묘대제; Chi. 宗廟大祭; Royal Ancestral Ritual) and the sajikdaeje (Kor. 사직대제; Chi. 社稷大祭; Rite to the Gods of Earth and Grain), the seokjeondaeje (Kor. 석전대제; Chi. 釋奠大祭; Confucian Memorial Rite) held at hyanggyo (Kor. 향교; Chi. 鄕校; local Confucian schools) and seowon (Kor. 서원; Chi. 書院; Neo-Confucian academies), and household rites such as gijesa (Kor. 기제사; Chi. 忌祭祀; anniversary rites) and charye (Kor. 차례; Chi. 茶禮; seasonal rites). The session then explains gwanhonsangje (Kor. 관혼상제; Chi. 冠婚喪祭; the Four Ceremonial Occasions) as Confucian rites of passage and discusses how these traditions have continued in contemporary Korean holiday customs such as sebae (Kor. 세배; Chi. 歲拜; New Year’s bow) and Chuseok ancestral rites. Regarding cultural heritage, the class introduces the architectural characteristics and symbolism of the Jongmyo Shrine, as well as the spatial composition and educational functions of Neo-Confucian academies inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List such as Dosanseowon and Byeongsanseowon. The session also presents material culture including jegi (Kor. 제기; Chi. 祭器; ritual vessels) and jebok (Kor. 제복; Chi. 祭服; ritual garments) using visual materials. Furthermore, the session examines how Confucian cultural heritage is utilized in contemporary South Korean society, such as the commercialization of the jongmyodaeje as a tourist attraction and seowon stay programs.

Week 7 explores the complex religious landscape of the Joseon dynasty. While Joseon officially adopted Confucianism as its state ideology, Buddhism and folk beliefs remained influential among the populace. Exploring the gap between official ideology and actual religious practice constitutes the core focus of this session. The class explains how Buddhism survived under the policy of sungyueokbul through the tradition of sanjungbulgyo (Kor. 산중불교; Chi. 山中佛敎; mountain Buddhism). The session specifically addresses the process through which Buddhism, expelled from the capital, maintained its existence centered on temples in the mountains. Furthermore, the session examines the decline in the social status of monks and the persistence of Buddhist faith among commoners despite such circumstances. Of particular interest, in this context, is the Buddhist faith of naemyeongbu (Kor. 내명부; Chi. 內命婦; royal women of the inner court). These royal women, including queens, queen dowagers, and royal consorts, officially followed Confucian norms while privately practicing Buddhism with deep devotion. The class explores their Buddhist patronage activities, such as sponsoring the reconstruction of temples, presiding over bulsa (Kor. 불사; Chi. 佛事; Buddhist ceremonies), and publishing Buddhist scriptures. Using these examples, the class illustrates the dual religious structure of Joseon society: although Confucianism dominated the male-centered public sphere, Buddhism played an important role in the female-centered private sphere. This analysis helps students to understand the complex relationship between dominant ideology and actual religious practice. In addition, the session addresses the syncretism of Buddhism and shamanism among commoners. Using examples such as temples accommodating indigenous beliefs through chilseonggak (Kor. 칠성각; Chi. 七星閣; shrines to the Seven Stars) and sansingak (Kor. 산신각; Chi. 山神閣; shrines to the Mountain Spirit), as well as monks participating in chukgwi (Kor. 축귀; Chi. 逐鬼; exorcism rituals) and funeral ceremonies, the class demonstrates that boundaries between religions remained fluid at the popular level.

Week 8, the midterm period, is designated a no-class week. This time provides students with the opportunity to prepare their group presentations scheduled for Week 15. This decision reflects two considerations. First, given the nature of general education courses, we determined that exploring topics and presentation skills in depth better serves the educational objectives that we seek to achieve. Second, allotting sufficient preparation time for group presentations allows students to explore topics of interest in greater depth and enhances the quality of their work. During this period, instructors may conduct individual consultations with each group regarding topic selection and direction. Students select an area of interest from the topics covered in the course to begin their in-depth exploration, distribute roles among group members, and establish research plans.

Part II (i.e., Weeks 9–16) shifts from the chronological approach of Part I to a thematic approach, examining Korean folk beliefs, Christianity, and religiosity in contemporary South Korean society. The weekly class topics and content for Part II are defined in

Table 2. Part II: Class topics and specific contents (Weeks 9–16).

Week	Class Topic	Class Contents
9	Korean Folk Beliefs and Seasonal Customs (1)	Learn about the worldview of musok (Korean shamanism) Understand the structure and function of gut (shamanic rituals) Explore the role and social status of mudang (shamans)
10	Korean Folk Beliefs and Seasonal Customs (2)	Learn about village tutelary beliefs: jangseung (Korean totem poles), sotdae (spirit poles), and seonangdang (village shrines) Understand concepts of jeoseungsaja (the Korean Grim Reaper and death) Explore seasonal customs and traditional holidays
11	Transmission and Reception of Catholicism	Learn about the introduction of seohak (Western Learning) Understand the characteristics of voluntary acceptance Explore the history of persecution and martyrdom Examine Catholic holy sites and cultural heritage
12	Protestant Missionary Work and Modernization	Learn about the arrival of missionaries during the late Joseon opening period Explore medical and educational missions Understand the association between Protestantism and modernization in Korea Examine the national independence movement and Christianity
13	The Religious Landscape in Contemporary South Korea	Learn about changes in religious demographics Understand inter-religious dialog and conflicts Explore new religious movements and challenges of a multireligious society
14	Religiosity in Contemporary South Korean Society	Learn about the reappearance of traditional beliefs in urban spaces, such as jangseung and sotdae in Namsan and Han River parks in Seoul Explore the popularity of tarot, saju (Four Pillars of Destiny fortune-telling), and divination culture Understand religious imagination in popular culture (e.g., Guardian: The Lonely and Great God, Exhuma, K-Pop Demon Hunters) Examine discourses on spirituality and the ways in which contemporary Koreans psychologically relate to religion
15	Group Presentations
16	Final Examination

.

Weeks 9 and 10 focus intensively on Korean folk beliefs. Two weeks are devoted to this topic because students tend to have less prior knowledge of Korean folk beliefs compared to institutional religions, even though these traditions are deeply intertwined with the daily lives of Koreans. Week 9 centers on musok (Kor. 무속; Chi. 巫俗). The class examines the worldview of musok, particularly the relationship between sillyeong (Kor. 신령; Chi. 神靈; spirits) and humans, as well as the concept of samgye (Kor. 삼계; Chi. 三階; the three-realm structure): the heavenly realm, the earthly realm, and the underground realm. Moreover, the session discusses the structure and function of gut (Kor. 굿; Korean shamanic ritual), the role of mudang (Kor. 무당; Korean shaman), and historical changes in their social status. For this session, instructors can utilize various video materials to present actual gut rituals to discuss their meaning.

Week 10 explores other aspects of Korean folk beliefs, including village tutelary beliefs. For instance, the class examines the function and meaning of village guardian symbols such as jangseung (Kor. 장승; Korean totem pole), sotdae (Kor. 솟대; spirit pole), and seonangdang (Kor. 서낭당; village shrine). Jangseung were erected at village entrances to ward off evil spirits, whereas sotdae served as mediums for communication with the celestial realm. In this context, the session notes that these symbols are installed in contemporary urban spaces such as Namsan and Hangang Park in Seoul. This session also covers Korean conceptions of death and jeoseungsaja (Kor. 저승사자; the Korean Grim Reaper), the belief in siwang (Kor. 시왕; Chi. 十王; the Ten Kings of the Underworld), and the religious background of seasonal customs and holidays in Korea. Through these topics, the class facilitates discussion that enables students to identify religious elements within the holiday customs that they have experienced.

Week 11 addresses the introduction and acceptance of Catholicism in Korea. One distinctive feature of Korean Catholicism is its voluntary acceptance, a case rarely found in the global history of Catholicism: rather than being introduced by missionaries, Joseon intellectuals studied and embraced the doctrine on their own initiative. The session covers the baptism of Yi Seung-hun (Kor. 이승훈; Chi. 李承薰) in Beijing, the formation of the early church community, and the history of persecution and martyrdom from the sinhaebakhae (Kor. 신해박해; Chi. 辛亥迫害; the Persecution of 1791) to the byeonginbakhae (Kor. 병인박해; Chi. 丙寅迫害; the Persecution of 1866). In this context, the class introduces Catholic sacred sites such as the Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine, Saenamteo Martyrs’ Shrine, and Haemi Martyrdom Holy Ground, explaining the historical background behind the numerous saints of the Korean Catholic Church.

Week 12 turns to Protestantism, examining its introduction and spread in Korea. The session explains the arrival of American missionaries in 1884 and 1885 (e.g., Horace N. Allen, Horace G. Underwood, and Henry G. Appenzeller) and their early missionary activities. The class examines how medical and educational missions contributed to modernization in Korea. The session, for example, covers the establishment of modern institutions such as Severance Hospital, Yonhui College, and Ewha Hakdang; the translation of the Bible into Korean and literacy campaigns; and Christian participation in the March First Movement. While explaining the historical context in which Protestantism became associated with modernization and Western civilization, the session also critically examines issues with this perception.

Week 13 examines the religious landscape of contemporary Korea. The session addresses changes in religious demographics in South Korean society since liberation from Japanese colonial rule in 1945 using statistical data to explain trends in the populations of Buddhists, Protestants, Catholics, and the religiously unaffiliated. The class explores the rapid growth of Protestantism from the 1960s to the 1980s and the increasing number of people identifying as religiously unaffiliated since the 2000s. The session also facilitates discussion on diverse cases of inter-religious dialog and conflict, as well as approaches to coexistence in a multireligious society. In addition, the class briefly introduces new religious movements such as Cheondogyo (Kor. 천도교; Chi. 天道敎), Won Buddhism (Kor. 원불교; Chi. 圓佛敎), and Jeungsando (Kor. 증산도; Chi. 甑山道).

Week 14 synthesizes the content of the entire course within the context of contemporary South Korean society. The session explores diverse religious phenomena present in Korean society despite the decline of institutional religion. Here, the class addresses four themes: First, the session examines the representation of traditional beliefs in urban spaces. For instance, the installation of jangseung and sotdae in locations such as Namsan and Hangang Park demonstrates how traditional folk beliefs are reinterpreted in contemporary urban settings. Second, the class discusses the popularity of tarot cards, saju (Kor. 사주; Chi. 四柱; Four Pillars of Destiny), and divination culture, examining why tarot apps and saju cafés have gained popularity among younger generations. Third, the session explores the religious imagination in popular culture. The class specifically examines the Korean conception of ghosts and jeoseungsaja in the drama Guardian: The Lonely and Great God, the shamanic worldview and pungsu (Kor. 풍수; Chi. 風水; Korean geomancy) in the film Exhuma, and the combination of exorcism narratives and K-pop in the animated film K-pop Demon Hunters. In doing so, the session discusses the reinterpretation of traditional religious elements in such content, as well as the reasons for its appeal to contemporary audiences. Fourth, the class addresses the rise of discourses on spirituality. In particular, the session explores the spiritual orientation of individuals in contemporary society who maintain an interest in the transcendent while distancing themselves from institutional religion.

Weeks 15 and 16 are devoted to student assessment. In Week 15, each group delivers a 15–20 min presentation on a topic of their choice, followed by a discussion session. Students select presentation topics from themes covered in the course for in-depth exploration. The instructor comprehensively evaluates the depth of content, presentation skills, use of sources, and participation in discussion. In Week 16, students take the final examination. The exam covers the entire content of the semester in essay format, assessing their understanding and analytical ability rather than rote memorization. For instance, students may be asked to discuss the significance of Buddhist faith among naemyeongbu (royal women of the inner court) in Joseon in relation to the Confucian social order or to identify and explain the religious imagination in contemporary Korean popular culture using specific examples.

3.3. Primary Directions and Rationale for Course Design

Based on Schwab’s practical approach to curriculum development and its four commonplaces (i.e., subject matter, learners, instructors, and milieu) (Schwab 1971, 1973, 1983, [1970] 2013), we established five primary directions for course design: (1) adopting the perspective of traditional religions; (2) balancing chronological and thematic approaches; (3) centering on cultural heritage to enhance tangibility; (4) connecting historical narrative with contemporary relevance; and (5) maintaining objectivity and religious neutrality. In this section, we first detail each of these directions and then illustrate the ways in which they emerged from our deliberation on the interactions among the four commonplaces.

3.3.1. Adopting the Perspective of Traditional Religions

Various approaches exist for examining religions in Korea. For instance, one could focus on the religions with the largest number of adherents today (i.e., Protestantism, Buddhism, Catholicism) or those that originated in Korea, including new religious movements such as Cheondogyo, Won Buddhism, and Jeungsando. In determining the subject matter of this course, we adopted the perspective of traditional religions—religious traditions that have influenced Korean spiritual life and daily practices over extended historical periods. Engagement with these traditions, we suggest, enables students to develop the religious literacy necessary to navigate and mitigate social conflicts in an increasingly multicultural and multireligious South Korean society. From this perspective, we established Buddhism and Confucianism as the central pillars of this course’s scope. Buddhism has profoundly shaped Korean culture for approximately 1700 years since the Three Kingdoms period, while Confucianism, as the governing ideology of the Joseon dynasty for 500 years, remains deeply embedded in contemporary South Koreans’ ways of life and values. We also included Korean folk beliefs (i.e., shamanism and village beliefs) that have persisted among the populace both before and following the arrival of Buddhism and Confucianism. Furthermore, we address Christianity (i.e., Catholicism and Protestantism), transmitted and established in Korean society, to provide an overview of the overall flow of Korean religious history.

3.3.2. Balancing Chronological and Thematic Approaches

We carefully considered the balance between chronological and thematic approaches for this course. Organizing the course exclusively in chronological order (e.g., ancient period, Three Kingdoms, Goryeo, Joseon, modern era) can prevent students from grasping the characteristics of each religion, as multiple traditions coexisted and intertwined within each period. Conversely, organizing the course solely by religion (e.g., Buddhism, Confucianism, Korean folk beliefs, Christianity) can obscure the historical interactions among different religious traditions and the contexts in which they developed. Given that fostering religious literacy requires students to understand both the distinctive features of each tradition and the dynamics of their interactions, we adopted a balanced approach that integrates both perspectives. This integration, we suggest, better prepares students to engage with religious diversity and related social conflicts in contemporary South Korea.

The first half of the course (Weeks 2–7) follows a chronological approach that focuses on the major religious tradition of each period: ancient beliefs and totemism (Week 2), Buddhism in the Three Kingdoms and Goryeo periods (Weeks 3–4), Confucianism in the Joseon dynasty (Weeks 5–6), and the complex religious landscape of Joseon (Week 7). This arrangement allows students to follow the flow of history while engaging with the distinctive characteristics of each religious tradition. The second half (Weeks 9–14) follows a thematic approach, addressing Korean folk beliefs (Weeks 9–10), the transmission and establishment of Christianity in Korea (Weeks 11–12), and the religious landscape of and religiosity in contemporary South Korean society (Weeks 13–14).

3.3.3. Centering on Cultural Heritage to Enhance Tangibility

In designing the course, we considered how to make religious traditions accessible to students who may have no prior background in religious studies. Abstract doctrinal explanations alone risk disengaging students, especially in general education settings, and we determined that concrete and visible materials offer a more effective point of entry. We therefore utilized cultural heritage as a primary medium for teaching and learning throughout the course. For instance, when addressing Buddhism, the course draws on cultural heritage sites such as Seokguram Grotto, Bulguksa Temple, and the Tripitaka Koreana. Similarly, sessions on Confucianism incorporate Jongmyo Shrine, hyanggyo, and seowon using visual materials. This approach, we suggest, works well because cultural heritage connects specific course content to places that students have visited or encountered through media, strengthening their motivation for learning. Cultural heritage also enables students to understand the ways in which abstract doctrines and beliefs find expression in concrete forms such as architecture, art, and ritual practices. For international students, this approach offers practical knowledge that connects to travel and cultural experiences in South Korea. Furthermore, cultural heritage sites, including those inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, help students appreciate the significance of Korean religious culture within a broader global context.

3.3.4. Connecting the Historical Narrative with Contemporary Relevance

We intentionally chose to title the course Exploring Korean Religions rather than History of Korean Religions. The latter may suggest a course focused exclusively on the past, whereas Exploring connotes the intention to examine various religious phenomena observable in contemporary South Korean society. Consistent with this title, we sought to connect the historical narrative with contemporary relevance throughout the course. The class topic for Week 14, Religiosity in Contemporary South Korean Society, best exemplifies this intention. This class addresses religious phenomena found throughout South Korean society despite the decline of institutional religion: jangseung (Korean totem poles) and sotdae (spirit poles) installed in urban spaces such as Namsan and Hangang Park in Seoul; the popularity of tarot and saju (Four Pillars of Destiny fortune-telling) among younger generations; and religious imagination expressed in popular culture, including the drama Guardian: The Lonely and Great God, the film Exhuma, and the animation K-Pop Demon Hunters. Through this class, students come to understand how elements of traditional religions continue and transform in contemporary society.

3.3.5. Maintaining Objectivity and Religious Neutrality

Avoiding bias toward any particular religion requires paying careful attention when addressing religion in general education in university settings. This concern applies on two levels: First, in a classroom where students come from diverse religious backgrounds, advocating for or criticizing a particular religion may cause some students to feel alienated or offended. Second, from an academic perspective, religious studies examines religious phenomena objectively rather than functioning as a form of theology for any particular religion. In this sense, a general education course on religion should maintain this scholarly stance.

With this consideration in mind, we sought to treat all religious traditions equally as the subjects of study. We avoided value judgments such as claiming that Buddhism is superior to Confucianism or that Christianity represents a more advanced form than Korean folk beliefs. Instead, we described the roles each tradition has served and the influence it has had within its historical context. Objectivity, however, does not mean uncritical acceptance. We address not only the positive aspects of each religious tradition but also historically problematic aspects (e.g., inter-religious conflicts, collusion between religious institutions and political power) to foster students’ critical thinking.

As described above, these five directions guided the design of the course. Although each direction addresses a specific aspect of course design, none were determined in isolation. Rather, we developed them through deliberation on the dynamic interactions among Schwab’s four commonplaces within the specific context of South Korean universities.

Table 3. Deliberation on the four commonplaces: contextual characteristics, interactions, and design directions.

Commonplace	Contextual Characteristics	Key Interactions	Course Design Directions
Learner	Lack of religious literacy Korean students’ superficial understanding of the religious foundations of their own culture International students’ limited access to the religious traditions underlying Korean culture	The history of Korean religions across multiple traditions and periods that need to be accessible to students without prior knowledge (subject matter) Diverse student composition that necessitates a course design that serves both groups through complementary purposes (milieu)	(4) Connecting historical narrative with contemporary relevance
Instructor	Deliberative role in balancing scholarly rigor with the specific needs of students	Complex and contested religious categories that require careful pedagogical approach (subject matter) Institutional diversity that necessitates an adaptable and teachable framework (milieu)	(3) Centering on cultural heritage for tangibility (5) Maintaining objectivity and religious neutrality
Subject matter	Critical engagement with the concepts of religion, beyond factual knowledge Coexistence and mutual influence of multiple religious traditions across periods	Students without prior knowledge who need both the distinctive features of each tradition and the dynamics of their interactions (learner) Intertwined traditions requiring organization in ways comprehensible without disciplinary background (learner)	(1) Adopting the perspective of traditional religions (2) Balancing chronological and thematic approaches
Milieu	16-week semester with limited instructional hours Absence of religious studies departments in most universities Classrooms comprising both Korean and international students	Establishes the institutional conditions within which the other three commonplaces interact (learner, instructor, subject matter)	All five directions

illustrates this deliberative process and the resulting design directions.

As Table 3 indicates, each design direction emerged from the interaction of specific commonplaces. For example, (4) connecting historical narratives with contemporary relevance arose from the intersection of the learner and the milieu. Students’ limited prior knowledge, together with the diverse composition of classrooms that include both Korean and international students, required us to demonstrate the immediate relevance of course content to students’ daily lives. This interaction informed our broader principle of linking historical content to contemporary phenomena throughout the course, rather than confining contemporary relevance to a single class topic.

Similarly, the interaction between the instructor and the subject matter led us to (3) center on cultural heritage for tangibility and (5) maintain objectivity and religious neutrality. The complex and contested nature of religious categories requires careful pedagogical approaches, and the instructor is responsible for balancing scholarly rigor with the specific needs of students who may have no prior background in religious studies. Concrete materials such as cultural heritage sites, rituals, and visual resources serve as accessible anchors that support this balancing role, whereas a consistent stance of objectivity and religious neutrality ensures that the course functions as religious studies regardless of institutional setting.

Moreover, the interaction between the subject matter and the learner shaped two further directions: (1) adopting the perspective of traditional religions and (2) balancing chronological and thematic approaches. The historically intertwined nature of Korean religious traditions posed a particular challenge for students encountering these traditions for the first time without prior knowledge, as organizing the course solely by religion or solely by chronology would obscure either the historical dynamics or the distinctive characteristics that students need to understand. This consideration also informed our decision to include Confucianism despite ongoing scholarly debate about its classification, given its profound influence on contemporary Korean social life and its direct relevance to the sociocultural conflicts students encounter in educational settings.

Across all five directions, the milieu established the institutional conditions within which the other three commonplaces interact. The 16-week timeframe, the absence of religious studies infrastructure in most universities, and the diverse composition of students together created conditions that each design direction needed to accommodate. In implementing these directions, several considerations required our particular attention throughout the design process, which we discuss in the following section.

3.4. Key Considerations in Course Design

Throughout the design process, several key considerations required our careful attention. First, the primary challenge involved covering the entirety of Korean religions within the milieu of a 16-week semester. Addressing Buddhism alone would require at least four weeks to cover each period (i.e., Three Kingdoms, Goryeo, Joseon, modern and contemporary Korean society), and Confucianism would require at least three weeks for both its thought and rituals. Including Korean folk beliefs and Christianity would place further strain on these time constraints. Under these conditions, deciding what to include and what to omit required careful deliberation. To address this challenge, we strategically allocated time to each religious tradition. For Buddhism, we assigned one week each to the Three Kingdoms and Goryeo periods, covering this tradition over two weeks in total. This decision reflects Buddhism’s significance in Korean religious history while allotting sufficient time for other traditions such as Confucianism, Korean folk beliefs, and Christianity. Buddhism in the Joseon period is addressed in Week 7, Religion and Popular Beliefs in Joseon, within the context of its relationship with Confucian culture. This arrangement situates Buddhism within its historical context while making efficient use of limited class time.

Second, a key consideration in this course is enabling students to develop religious literacy to engage with social conflicts in increasingly multicultural and multireligious educational settings in South Korea. Our emphasis on Confucianism, in this context, reflects this central goal. For instance, educational institutions in South Korea organize relationships in hierarchical ways according to grade level and age: the Korean terms seonbae (Kor. 선배; senior) and hubae (Kor. 후배; junior) mark distinct hierarchical statuses, and students use honorific speech when addressing older peers even within the same grade. These practices derive from Confucian principles such as samgangoryun (the Three Bonds and Five Relationships) and jangyuyuseo (the Proper Order between Elders and Juniors) that emphasize hierarchy and etiquette according to age and social position. Without understanding this Confucian tradition, students may struggle to navigate these distinctive features of Korean educational and social life.

Third, designating Week 14, Religiosity in Contemporary South Korean Society, as a separate class session reflects one of the core intentions of this curriculum. Class topics such as the popularity of tarot and saju (Four Pillars of Destiny fortune-telling) and religious imagination in popular culture connect closely with students’ daily lives, enhancing their learning motivation. This class also demonstrates how aspects of traditional religions covered throughout the course continue to exist and transform in contemporary society, effectively linking historical learning with contemporary relevance. Here, students come to recognize that religion is not merely a relic of the past but an ongoing cultural phenomenon embedded in everyday life.

Fourth, we deliberated on ways to ensure that the course remains meaningful for both Korean and international students studying together. For Korean students, the course offers an opportunity to view familiar cultural phenomena from a new academic perspective; for international students, it provides insight into the deeper layers of Korean culture. To achieve these goals, we actively incorporate concrete and visible materials such as cultural heritage and popular culture, while offering multilayered language support for students from diverse backgrounds.

4. Conclusions

In this study, we traced the development of school safety policy in South Korea and examined its current characteristics, particularly its emphasis on physical risks and infrastructure management. Our analysis revealed that the reforms implemented since 2014, including the Seven Standards for School Safety Education and successive basic plans for school safety accident prevention from 2016 to the present, have strengthened the capacity to address physical and infrastructure-related hazards. However, as the country undergoes a demographic transformation toward a multicultural and multireligious society, educational institutions increasingly encounter tensions and conflicts entwined with cultural and religious diversity that existing safety frameworks cannot completely address. If left unaddressed, such conflicts could diminish social cohesion and erode societal sustainability in South Korea.

In response, we developed a curriculum framework for religious studies in general education, drawing on Joseph Schwab’s influential practical approach to curriculum development. Our framework considers the dynamic interactions among the four commonplaces of education (i.e., learner, instructor, subject matter, and milieu) within the specific context of South Korean universities. Applying this framework, we designed a general education course, Exploring Korean Religions, which examines the historical development and contemporary dynamics of religious traditions in Korea. In doing so, the course aims to help students who live and study in South Korea, regardless of their backgrounds, to understand the religious foundations of Korean society and relevant sociocultural dynamics. Such understanding fosters religious literacy, enabling students not only to navigate the country’s increasing cultural and religious diversity but also to engage critically with related tensions and conflicts that influence societal sustainability in South Korea.

In this context, this study contributes to three interconnected areas. First, in terms of school safety research, we expand the scope of safety discourse beyond physical and infrastructure-related risks by highlighting sociocultural dimensions as a distinct domain that needs specific attention. By illustrating the ways in which religious and cultural differences can generate tensions in educational settings, this study offers a perspective that complements existing frameworks centered on observable and measurable physical hazards. Second, in the field of religious education, we demonstrate the ways in which religious literacy can function as a proactive and sustainable educational approach to addressing sociocultural conflicts in increasingly diverse societies. Furthermore, the curriculum framework developed in this study, grounded in Schwab’s practical approach, especially provides a concrete and adaptable model for teaching about Korean religions in general education at the university level. Third, regarding social sustainability, we suggest that cultivating religious literacy among students contributes to social cohesion by enabling them to understand and navigate the religious and cultural diversity that characterizes contemporary South Korea. In this sense, this study offers a distinct perspective on the ways in which educational institutions can address sociocultural dimensions of risk, contributing to social sustainability in South Korean society.

Despite these contributions, this study is not without limitations. For instance, this work presents a curriculum framework and course design as a theoretical and pedagogical proposal without empirical data measuring the actual impact on students’ religious literacy or their capacity to navigate sociocultural conflicts. Whether and to what extent this course achieves its intended outcomes remains an open question that requires future investigation. In addition, practical constraints exist regarding the curriculum framework, including the 16-week timeframe, which inevitably limits comprehensive coverage of various religious traditions in South Korea. The course cannot address all aspects, such as new religious movements and regional variations in Korean folk beliefs. Although the curriculum aims to lay a foundation to help students develop interest in the religious dimensions of Korean culture rather than to provide exhaustive knowledge, this constraint also remains a limitation.

Given these limitations, this study points to several directions for future research. Future studies could implement the course and assess its impact on students’ religious literacy and their capacity to navigate cultural and religious diversity, providing the empirical evidence that this study, as a design proposal, does not offer. Research might also explore the ways in which this curriculum framework can be adapted for K-12 safety education, where students encounter sociocultural conflicts at earlier stages of development. Furthermore, future research could develop indicators for assessing sociocultural risk in educational settings, given that conflicts arising from religious and cultural differences are considerably more difficult to identify and measure than physical risks. Such indicators would enable educational institutions to monitor and address sociocultural dimensions of safety in more systematic ways. Together with the present study, these prospective efforts can contribute to developing new educational approaches that address the sociocultural dimensions of risks for sustainable risk management, enhancing community resilience and social sustainability.