Preparatory Guidelines for Meditation in Pre-Modern Sino-Tibetan Buddhist Traditions

Abstract

This study offers a comparative analysis of preparatory practices in Buddhist meditation, focusing on the Tiantai tradition of medieval China and the Nyingma tradition of tenth-century Tibet. Challenging the view of meditation as solely a mental experience, it highlights the critical role of the body in shaping contemplative training. Drawing on recent Buddhist studies and cultural embodiment theory, the paper argues that preparatory practices are essential stages of psychophysical transformation, not just preliminary steps. The study explores early Chinese Tiantai texts, particularly Zhiyi’s meditation manuals, which present twenty-five preparatory practices involving posture, diet, breath control, and ethical restraint. In parallel, the paper examines Nupchen Sangye Yeshe’s bSam gtan mig sgron from the Tibetan Nyingma tradition, highlighting its emphasis on physical integrity, ritual purity, four supportive conditions, and environmental harmony. While Tiantai sources provide a structured methodology, Nyingma practices integrate these elements within broader tantric and visionary frameworks. The paper concludes that these practices are not only supportive of meditation, but also performative enactments of Buddhist cosmology and ethics, positioning the body as central to meditation’s transformative potential.

1. Role of the Body in Buddhist Meditation Traditions

In recent decades, scholarly engagement with Buddhist meditation in Western academia has undergone significant diversification. Early studies often conceptualized meditation as a vehicle for accessing private, ineffable, and mystical experience. However, more recent scholarship adopted a critical stance toward the category of “experience” itself, stressing the cultural, historical, and rhetorical conditions that shape, mediate, and authorize meditative practices. This exemplary shift illuminated the complex heterogeneity of Buddhist meditation, drawing attention to the nuanced and often substantial divergences across traditions.

1.1. Buddhist Meditative Experience

Robert Sharf’s influential work (Sharf 1993, 1995) critically examines the role of “pure experience” in Japanese Zen and its contribution to modern Japanese identity. He challenges the assumption that meditative experience is inherently private, internal, and psychologically universal. Instead, he argues that this framing is a modern construction—rooted in Buddhist modernism—and reflects liberal Western religious ideals rather than traditional Buddhist understandings. According to Sharf, what is called “religious experience” is never purely internal or unmediated, but is shaped by language, culture, and embodied social practices. His critique laid the groundwork for more contextualized, historically grounded analyses of meditative experience across traditions.

Offering a contrasting perspective, Gyatso (1999) draws on Tibetan Buddhist texts to demonstrate the prominence of first-person accounts in autobiographical and medical literature. These narratives describe meditation-induced dreams, bodily sensations, and visionary phenomena, revealing a Tibetan epistemology where the body serves as a site of knowledge. In her later work (Gyatso 2015), Gyatso shows how early modern Tibetan medical and religious discourses jointly conceptualized the body as a locus of experimental insight, rather than segregating the spiritual and medical domains. Despite their differing emphases, both Sharf and Gyatso converge on a crucial point: bodily experience in Buddhist practice is inseparable from its cultural and historical context.

This culturally situated view of meditative experience echoes broader shifts in Buddhist studies. Gregory Schopen’s critique of the field’s overreliance on canonical texts in favor of examining ritual and material practices reshaped scholarly approaches (Schopen 1997). Similarly, Michael Radich’s dissertation (Radich 2007) reconsiders Buddhist notions of embodiment, arguing that models such as the five aggregates (Skt. skandha) and the psychological aggregates of a human being (Skt. nāmarūpa) resist Western dualistic paradigms. He traces how early doctrinal models informed later conceptions of the dharmakāya and bodily transformation, particularly within Chan and tantric traditions that emphasize achieving Buddhahood in this very body (Radich 2007, pp. 1358–63). Greene (2012, 2021) reinforces this embodied turn through his studies of early Chinese Buddhist meditation. He reveals that early practices prioritized vivid visionary experiences, often evaluated and interpreted within communal, ritual contexts, rather than seen as private or spontaneous events.

Taken together, these perspectives signal a growing scholarly consensus: meditation should be viewed not merely as an internal technique, but as a culturally embedded practice involving the disciplined coordination of body, senses, and ethical comportment within specific institutional and ritual frameworks.

1.2. Comparative Studies of Chinese and Tibetan Meditation Traditions

Buddhist meditation traditions exhibit remarkable diversity, reflecting the principle of adapting teachings to the capacities (Skt. adhiṣṭhāna) and afflictive conditions (Skt. kleśa) of individual practitioners. Foundational contemplative techniques—such as impurity contemplation (Skt. aśubha-bhāvanā), mindfulness of breathing (Skt. ānāpānasati)1, the four divine abodes (Skt. brahmavihāras), and the six recollections (Skt. anusmṛti)—were maintained across both early and Mahāyāna traditions. In Mahāyāna contexts, however, these techniques were reinterpreted through the lens of altruistic aspiration and the bodhisattva path, giving rise to new configurations of meditative cultivation.

Despite this richness, traditional presentations often subordinated the role of the body, foregrounding mental discipline while portraying the body either as an object of renunciation or a source of suffering. Recent scholarship—particularly within Western academia—sought to move beyond these limitations by comparing how different Buddhist traditions conceptualize meditative techniques, experiential outcomes, and the processes of psychophysical transformation. This section narrows its scope to comparative studies of Chinese and Tibetan meditation systems.

The field of Sino-Tibetan comparative meditation studies began to take shape in the twentieth century, largely through scholarly engagement with the so-called Samye debate and its implications for the transmission of Chinese Chan to Tibet. Early figures such as Marcelle Lalou (1890–1967), Giuseppe Tucci (1894–1984), and Rolf Stein (1911–1999) laid the groundwork for this discourse, culminating in Paul Demiéville’s (1894–1979) seminal 1952 monograph Le Concile de Lhasa.2 These works sought to reconstruct the historical dynamics of the debate while highlighting its significance within Tibetan historiography and doctrinal development. Ruegg (2013, pp. 108–20) later advanced this line of inquiry by arguing that the Samye debate should not be reduced to a simple confrontation between Chinese and Indian monastic traditions. Rather, he contended that the debate reflected nuanced Tibetan efforts to navigate pressing questions concerning the nature and direction of contemplative practice. While the precise historical contours of the debate remain elusive, extant textual materials offer critical insight into early Tibetan responses to Chinese Chan, thereby facilitating ongoing comparative analysis between Chan and Dzogchen traditions.

More recent research focused on Dunhuang manuscripts as a key site of Sino-Tibetan exchange. Meinert (2007), for instance, analyzed the Lung chung (IOL Tib J 689-1) and its commentary (PT 699), demonstrating how Chan teachings were translated and adapted within the Dzogchen framework. Subtle terminological shifts during the translation process led to a convergence of Chan and Dzogchen doctrines. A century later, this syncretic tendency was explicitly challenged by Nupchen Sangye Yeshe (Tib. gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye shes, ca. 844–943?), whose Lamp for the Eye of Meditation (bSam gtan mig sgron)3 sought to distinguish Chan from Dzogchen on doctrinal and soteriological grounds.

Sam van Schaik (2012, 2015) further enriched the field through his extensive work on Dunhuang materials. His studies illuminate the diversity of early Tibetan meditative practices and underscore the ways in which Chan-style methods were integrated into broader tantric frameworks. His 2015 monograph Tibetan Zen presents translations of ten Dunhuang manuscripts, shedding light on the ritual, doctrinal, and lineage aspects of early Sino-Tibetan meditative exchange. The Dunhuang corpus offers compelling evidence that meditation in the region was deeply influenced by Chan, producing a rich and hybrid textual tradition. These materials testify not only to the presence of Chan in Tibetan cultural zones, but also to broader patterns of inter-Buddhist synthesis.

While this body of scholarship clarified many aspects of Chan–Dzogchen interaction—particularly concerning śamatha-vipaśyanā integration and sudden vs. gradual models of enlightenment—less attention has been paid to preliminary practices (Tib. sngon ‘gro). Specifically, little has been written on how different traditions define the practitioner’s starting point, or how initial practices function to recalibrate bodily comportment, emotional orientation, and perceptual frameworks.

This study addresses that lacuna by examining how preparatory practices are articulated and operationalized in Chinese and Tibetan contemplative manuals. Focusing on the threshold of meditative engagement—the juncture at which body and mind are prepared for deeper absorption—this research explores how such practices serve not only as preliminary conditions, but also as transformative processes in their own right. By situating this inquiry within the broader dialogue between Chan and tantric systems, the study seeks to deepen our understanding of embodiment, preparation, and path structure in Buddhist contemplative traditions.

The preceding review makes it clear that bSam gtan mig sgron by Nupchen remains the most comprehensive extant source for understanding the theory and practice of meditation in Tibet around the tenth century. In the Chinese Buddhist context, Zhìyǐ 智顗 (538–597 hereafter as Zhiyi), the early patriarch of the Tiān tái 天台 (hereafter as Tiantai) tradition, developed an intricate meditative system known as the “Stages of śamatha-vipaśyanā” (zhǐguān cìdì 止觀次第). This framework presents a detailed and sequential approach to contemplative training, encompassing preparatory practices for regulating the body, breath, and mind, alongside systematic instructions for the integration of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Zhiyi’s writings constitute one of the earliest systematic articulations of gradual entry into meditative absorption and later served as both a theoretical and practical cornerstone for the development of Chinese Buddhist meditation. Significantly, his corpus predates the emergence of Chan, standing as the most complete instructional model from the formative period of Chinese Buddhist contemplative culture.

More importantly, the writings of Zhiyi and Nupchen are not only comprehensive in scope and structure, but also reflect the localized modalities of Buddhist contemplative practice. The Dunhuang manuscripts, which bear witness to direct encounters between Chinese and Tibetan traditions, arose from a cultural hybrid frontier shaped by nearly a century of Tibetan imperial rule and ongoing Han Chinese influence. As such, the Dunhuang corpus exhibits pronounced syncretic tendencies. In contrast, Tiantai meditation texts remain more deeply embedded within the Han cultural and intellectual milieu. In addition to their doctrinal sophistication, Tiantai sources engage explicitly with the physiological and somatic dimensions of practice, addressing phenomena such as meditation-induced illness and methods of bodily maintenance. These features provide valuable insight into the lived, embodied dimensions of Chinese Buddhist cultivation.

In light of these considerations, this study selects the meditation manuals of Zhiyi and Nupchen as primary sources for a comparative analysis. Through close textual examination, it aims to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of how distinct Buddhist traditions conceptualize and operationalize the preliminary stages of contemplative training—an area that remains underexplored in current scholarship on Buddhist meditation.

1.3. Somatic Preparation Prior to Meditation

Within the field of Chinese Chan studies, scholarly inquiry traditionally prioritized metaphysical concerns—particularly the nature of mind—often at the expense of examining the body and its role in contemplative training. Recent research (Mei 2024, pp. 1–37) on Dunhuang manuscript P.3777, commonly referred to as the Wǔxīn wénshū 五辛文書 (Five Pungent Spices Book) shows that earlier Japanese interpretations tended to focus on advanced spiritual practices found in texts such as the Chéngxīn lùn 澄心論 (Treatise on Clearing the Mind) and the Xiūxīn yàolùn修心要論 (Treatise on Cultivating the Mind). Consequently, these studies overlooked the essential prerequisites for bodily discipline outlined in this book, including preliminary precepts and the comprehensive stages of the threefold training of morality (Skt. śīla), concentration (Skt. samādhi), and wisdom (Skt. prajñā).

In the Tibetan context, although few studies address physical preparation explicitly, Pickens (2022) explored the embodied dimensions of preliminary (Tib. sngon ‘gro) tantric practices. He highlights how acts such as prostrations, ascetic observances, and guru service function as corporeal methods for purifying the practitioner’s body and mind, cultivating devotion, and fostering receptivity to higher teachings. These ritualized bodily engagements are not ancillary but central to the tantric path, transforming the practitioner into a “suitable vessel” (Skt. saddharma-bhājanaṃ; Tib. snod du rung ba) capable of receiving and embodying advanced instruction.

From a cross-traditional perspective, exclusive focus on meditative technique or philosophical doctrine risks obscure the transformative significance of these somatic preliminaries. Recent developments in Buddhist studies emphasized the formation of the meditative subject within specific historical, cultural, and institutional contexts, highlighting the embodied nature of religious cultivation. In this light, preliminary practices should be understood not merely as pragmatic prerequisites but as constitutive stages of corporeal transformation.

This study, therefore, turns to pre-modern Chinese and Tibetan meditation manuals to examine how the body is represented, regulated, and conditioned in the lead-up to formal practice. It asks the following: how do these texts guide the practitioner toward an appropriate bodily and mental state conducive to meditative absorption? In what ways does the transformation of the impermanent, material body (Skt. rūpakāya) establish the foundation for realizing the perfected body (Skt. dharmakāya)? Rather than inquiring into the kinds of experiences meditation produces, this research probes the conditions—both cultural and somatic—that make such experiences possible in the first place. In doing so, it underscores the role of bodily preparation in facilitating focused concentration, access to altered states of consciousness, and eventual stabilization in the contemplative equipoise of non-dual awareness.

1.4. Theories of Cultural Embodiment

The preliminary phase of meditation, as examined in this study, is not merely a technical prelude to deeper practice, but a profound process of psychophysical reconfiguration. Traditional sources often frame this phase in terms of aligning body, speech, and mind; yet, a dimension that remains underexplored is the culturally situated, lived experience of the practitioner. To address this, the present study employs the framework of cultural embodiment, a theoretical lens that interrogates how the body functions as a site of cultural practice, meaning-making, and subject formation.

This approach draws on Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of habitus, which posits that bodily dispositions are not instinctual or biologically predetermined, but are shaped through the internalization of social structures and repeated participation in culturally specific practices (Bourdieu 1977, pp. 72–95). Building upon this foundation, Thomas Csordas develops embodiment as a methodological paradigm, arguing that the body is not a passive carrier of cultural symbols, but an active ground for perception, action, and the generation of meaning (Csordas 1990, pp. 5–47; 1993). Both theorists challenge the Cartesian assumption of a disembodied mind, repositioning the body as central to the constitution of experience and identity.

These insights are particularly salient in the study of religious cultivation, where bodily practice is not merely instrumental, but constitutive of spiritual transformation. In this context, the body must be understood as a lived medium through which ethical conduct, cognitive reorientation, and soteriological aspiration are enacted. The perspective of cultural embodiment thus enables a more nuanced account of how bodily preparation in Buddhist meditation is embedded in, and co-produced by, broader systems of ritual, pedagogy, and institutional discipline.

Csordas’ seminal essay Embodiment as a Paradigm for Anthropology marks a turning point in anthropological theory, shifting attention from language and symbol to perception and bodily engagement. He critiques symbolic anthropology—especially the work of Clifford Geertz (1926–2006)—for subordinating embodied experience to the interpretation of meaning systems. Instead, Csordas argues that culture is enacted through bodily engagement: sensory perception, affective attunement, and corporeal movement. In this view, embodiment is not a static biological fact, but a mode of being-in-the-world that is open-ended, intersubjective, and co-constituted with social life.

This perspective has profound implications for the study of ritual, healing, and spiritual practice. It reframes such phenomena not as symbolic enactments to be decoded, but as dynamic processes through which a religious world is constituted. Applied to the Buddhist context, particularly the preliminary stages of meditation, this paradigm highlights how sequences of bodily gestures, breathing techniques, visualizations, and ethical comportments operate not simply as preparatory exercises or merit-generating acts, but as performative enactments of a soteriological worldview. In this framework, the body becomes not only the vehicle of liberation, but the very site where liberation is enacted.

This emphasis on embodied practice is echoed by scholars such as Robert Sharf, who critiqued the privileging of interiorized experience in modern Buddhist discourse and emphasized the role of institutional and performative conditions in shaping what is taken to be “religious experience.” Building on such insights, the present study seeks to analyze the embodied meanings of preliminary practices in Chinese and Tibetan Buddhist traditions through the lens of cultural embodiment. In doing so, it lays the groundwork for the subsequent comparative analysis of key contemplative texts—particularly the writings of Zhiyi and Nupchen—and their respective models of meditative preparation.

2. Meditation Treatises from Sixth-Century China

Zhiyi (538–597), an early master of the Chinese Tiantai tradition, played a foundational role in the systematization of its doctrinal and meditative frameworks. His extensive writings on śamatha-vipaśyanā (zhiguan 止觀) constitute one of the earliest and most comprehensive bodies of meditative literature in East Asian Buddhism. Among his extant works, four texts stand out for their treatment of meditative practice: Shìchán bōluómì cìdì fǎmén 釋禪波羅蜜次第法門 (The Stages of the Pāramitās in Chan, hereafter SPC), Xiūxí zhǐguān zuòchán fǎyào 修習止觀坐禪法要 (Essentials of Practicing Śamatha-Vipaśyanā), also known as Tóngméng zhǐguān 童蒙止觀 or Xiǎo zhǐguān 小止觀 (Elementary or Brief Instructions on Śamatha-Vipaśyanā, hereafter BSV), Liù miàomén 六妙門 (The Six Marvelous Gates), and Móhē zhǐguān 摩訶止觀 (The Great Instructions on Śamatha-Vipaśyanā, hereafter GSV).

With the exception of The Six Marvelous Gates, these works provide detailed accounts of preparatory practices that precede formal meditation. These preliminary measures are structured around five interrelated sets of practices: (1) fulfilling the five conditions (jù wǔyuán 具五緣), (2) avoiding the five desires (hē wǔyù 呵五欲), (3) abandoning the five hindrances (qì wǔgài 棄五蓋), (4) adjusting the five factors (tiào wǔshì 調五事), and (5) engaging in the five methods (xíng wǔfǎ 行五法). Collectively referred to as the “twenty-five preliminary practices” (èrshíwǔ qiánfāng biàn 二十五前方便), these practices aim to regulate and refine both body and mind, establishing the foundation for meditative absorption.

Although all three texts—SPC, BSV, and GSV—address the twenty-five preliminary practices, they do so with varying degrees of scope and elaboration. Comparative textual analysis reveals patterns of addition, omission, and lexical divergence. SPC and BSV exhibit a high degree of textual concordance, differing only in minor linguistic details. In contrast, the GSV diverges more substantially. It offers only brief references to dietary and sleep regulation, while placing greater emphasis on the cultivation of bodily posture, breath control, and focused mental attention. Moreover, GSV introduces a more developed exegetical framework, particularly in its treatment of the regulation of the five factors and mental contemplation. This exegetical orientation is further reflected in its stylistic shift: whereas SPC and BSV adopt a largely descriptive tone, GSV presents a more analytical and doctrinally integrative exposition.

Despite the importance of these preliminary practices within the broader Tiantai zhiguan system, they received limited scholarly attention. Western engagement with Zhiyi’s GSV began in earnest only in the latter half of the twentieth century, gradually giving rise to a growing, multi-dimensional body of scholarship. A pioneering figure in this field is Paul L. Swanson, one of the first Western scholars to systematically explore Tiantai philosophy. In his foundational study Foundations of T’ien-T’ai Philosophy, Swanson (1989) investigates the origins, development, and doctrinal implications of the school’s core teaching—the Threefold Truth (sāndì三諦)—within the broader landscape of Chinese Buddhist intellectual history. His three-volume annotated English translation of the GSV, published under the title Clear Serenity, Quiet Insight (Swanson 2018), offers an expansive and nuanced account of Tiantai meditative theory and practice. It stands as a major contribution to the contemporary academic understanding of East Asian Buddhist philosophy and contemplative disciplines.

Another pivotal contribution to the Anglophone study of the GSV is the collaborative translation and annotation by Neal Donner and Daniel Stevenson, published in 1993. Their work, which includes a complete translation of the first chapter accompanied by an extensive introduction, represents a major advance in the philological engagement with this foundational Tiantai text. In their introduction, Donner and Stevenson examine the sequential structure of Tiantai’s preparatory practices, clarify Zhiyi’s meditative techniques, and underscore the stringent bodily disciplines required of practitioners. They emphasize that Zhiyi’s meticulous prescriptions regarding posture, breath regulation, and attentional focus articulate a nuanced Chinese Buddhist conception of psychosomatic integration—one that resists reduction to purely mental cultivation. The introduction also surveys the textual history of the GSV’s title and offers textual critical notes on variant editions and redactions (Donner and Stevenson 1993, pp. 26–29).

In the case of the BSV, an English translation was published by Bhikshu Dharmamitra in 2009. Recent scholarship identified two principal transmission lineages for this text: one based on manuscript tradition and the other on printed editions (Li 2022, pp. 250–55). The present study adopts the standardized Taishō edition as the basis for textual analysis.

While contemporary discussions of embodiment in Tiantai meditation often focus on the phenomenon of “meditative illness” (chánbìng 禪病)4, this thematic emphasis is relatively limited in scope. Zhiyi’s analysis extends well beyond physiological disturbances, identifying six interrelated sources of bodily and mental disequilibrium: disharmony among the four elements, irregular diet, improper sitting postures, vulnerability to spirits and demons, interference by Māra, and the emergence of karmic obstructions.5 These dimensions of corporeal vulnerability in meditation remain insufficiently explored and warrant further scholarly attention.

2.1. The Significance of the Body in Meditation

What is the significance of the body for practitioners of meditation? In Huisi’s 慧思 (515–577) Li shiyuan wen 立誓願文 (Vow of Aspiration), there is a passage in which he articulates his ascetic practices and expresses remorse for both past and present karmic offenses:

In order to protect and preserve the Dharma, I seek to extend my life while avoiding rebirth in celestial realms or other existences. I call upon the aid of virtuous saints to procure exceptional medicinal herbs and elixirs, which may cure ailments and alleviate physical needs such as hunger and thirst. This will allow me to engage in continuous meditation and remain steadfast in the pursuit of the spiritual path. May I find a secluded retreat in the remote mountains, with ample divine elixirs to fulfill this aspiration. By utilizing external remedies to refine my inner being, I aspire to achieve personal tranquility as a prerequisite for alleviating the suffering of others. It is essential to first free oneself from bondage in order to assist others; there is no alternative path to this liberation.

為護法故求長壽命，不願生天及餘趣。願諸賢聖佐助我，得好芝草及神丹，療治眾病除饑渴，常得經行修諸禪。願得深山寂靜處，足神丹藥修此願。藉外丹力修內丹，欲安眾生先自安。己身有縛能解他縛，無有是處。

6

Whether or not this text can be definitively attributed to Huisi, it underscores the importance of the body in the meditation process. The acquisition of miraculous medicines to heal ailments and alleviate hunger enables practitioners to maintain physical well-being, thereby allowing them to sustain their practice. By utilizing external elixirs to cultivate both the mind and the body, practitioners prepare themselves for deeper self-cultivation. Prior to engaging in the altruistic actions of the Bodhisattva path, it is essential to transcend personal limitations in order to effectively alleviate the suffering of others. This passage highlights the early Tiantai master’s recognition of the body’s crucial role in the meditative and spiritual practices. This viewpoint stands in stark contrast to the perspectives found in many early meditation manuals translated into Chinese, which often emphasize the impurity of the physical body or advocate for its rejection.7

This acknowledgment of the crucial role of the body is also evident in Zhiyi’s writings. For instance, in the fourth juàn 卷 of the GSV, when discussing the Twenty-Five Preliminary Practices, Zhiyi states, “When the body is properly regulated, the foundation of the path is solidly established”。8

Furthermore, in the eighth juan 卷, titled ‘Contemplating the Realm of Sickness’ (Guānbìng huànjìng 觀病患境), Zhiyi offers a comprehensive analysis of the karmic origins of the physical body, the causes of illnesses, and their corresponding treatments. He also discusses the application of alchemical techniques in the healing process:

Such techniques are considered superficial and largely illusory, making them unnecessary for monks and best avoided. However, given the impermanence and fragility of the body, it is acceptable to use them for the purpose of healing illness and maintaining physical well-being, provided that one engages in the practices associated with the four kinds of samādhi.

術事淺近，體多貢幻，非出家人所須，元不須學，學須急棄。若修四三昧，泡脆之身損增無定，借用治病，身安道存，亦應無嫌。

9

This emphasis on the significance of the body must be understood within the context of the meditative practice. Practitioners often overlook the physical aspect; as ordinary individuals redirect their attention from attachment to the body towards the pursuit of elevated teachings, they may forget that the path begins with the very body they inhabit.

2.2. Overview of the Twenty-Five Preliminary Practices

Having elucidated the significance of the body in meditation, it is imperative to consider how practitioners may thoughtfully prepare both their body and mind prior to engaging in meditative practices. In the second juan of the SPC, it is articulated that, to cultivate a stable practice, practitioners must grasp and adeptly employ skillful means. These means can be examined through both external and internal lenses. External skillful means encompass the preparatory methods undertaken before meditation, while internal skillful means refer to the techniques employed during the meditative process itself. These two dimensions are inherently interconnected and mutually reinforcing.

The external skillful means are exemplified by the ‘Twenty-Five Preliminary Practices’, which involve fulfilling five essential conditions, eschewing five desires, relinquishing five hindrances, adjusting five factors, and applying five methods. The text illuminates that these practices serve as foundational steps for the initial cultivation of the mind prior to achieving meditation. Specifically, the five essential conditions are: (1) upholding pure precepts; (2) ensuring sufficient clothing and sustenance; (3) residing in a serene environment; (4) detaching from various worldly concerns; and (5) nurturing relationships with virtuous spiritual companions.10

First and foremost, it is vital to recognize that adherence to the precepts is foundational for effective meditation. The guidance suggests the following:

Practitioners should engage with the precepts according to their own capacities, gradually refining and purifying their practice; without this, a stable meditative foundation cannot be established. Moreover, a sharp-minded Bodhisattvas who employ wisdom spontaneously embrace the complete set of ten precepts at the moment of generating bodhicitta.

持戒者但隨分隨力而修習，令增進漸漸清淨；若不爾者，不能生諸禪定。復次，頓行菩薩能以慧方便，從初發心一念之中即具持十種戒。

11

The text makes a distinction between two categories of practitioners: those with obtuse faculties and those with sharp faculties. While their approaches to upholding the precepts may differ—such as Sravakas, who attain liberation progressively through the observance of each precept, and sharp-minded Bodhisattvas, who embrace the precepts with wisdom in the moment of intention—both groups ultimately encompass the full set of ten precepts. This distinction highlights that, whether one is a gradual practitioner or a sharp Bodhisattva, the precepts serve as the fundamental foundation of meditation, reflecting a core and enduring principle in Buddhist practice. In instances of transgression, it is essential for practitioners to engage in sincere repentance.

Furthermore, practitioners must nurture contentment with their clothing and sustenance, as excessive desire can obstruct their progress. It is advisable to choose a residence that is removed from the hustle and bustle of urban life and the distractions of noisy environments. In terms of relinquishing external concerns, practitioners should avoid worldly activities, social engagements, and secular studies, including pursuits such as life-related crafts, medical prescriptions, and divination, since these can disturb the tranquility of the mind. Nevertheless, it is essential to acknowledge the importance of three vital types of spiritual friends:

First, there are the external caretakers who provide support and protection for the meditators. Second, spiritual companions engage in practice together, fostering encouragement while ensuring a harmonious environment. Lastly, spiritual friends employ both internal and external skillful means of meditation, offering guidance through demonstration, instruction, benefit, and inspiration.

一、外護善知識，經營供養，善能將護行人，不相惱亂；二者、同行善知識，共修一道，互相勸發，不相擾亂；三者、教授善知識，以內、外方便禪定法門，示教利喜。

12

In the GSV, the relationship among the Twenty-Five Preliminary Practices is summarized as follows:

The path to progress is not solitary; it relies on the collective efforts of individuals. People advance the supreme Dharma through conditional means, underscoring the importance of the five conditions. Once fulfilled, all desires must be eliminated, allowing for internal purification of the mind. With a calm mind, practitioners should adjust the five factors, and following the five methods will lead to inevitable success.

夫道不孤運，弘之在人；人弘勝法，假緣進道，所以須具五緣。緣力既具，當割諸嗜欲。嗜欲外屏，當內淨其心。其心若寂，當調試五事。五事調已，行於五法，必至所在。

13

It goes on to exemplify that just as a potter relies on tools and favorable conditions while rejecting worldly desires, akin to severing external ties, he must address the five hindrances as internal afflictions, regulate the five factors as one learns to manage a wheel and rope, and treat the five methods with the seriousness they warrant.

When all five conditions are fulfilled, practitioners should adeptly eliminate desires arising from the five external senses—sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch—as well as more subtle internal desires that can manifest even in the absence of external stimuli, such as greed, anger, sleepiness, distraction, and doubt, which obscure the true nature of the mind. In summary, the endeavor to overcome the five desires and abandon the five hindrances is intended to transform the practitioner’s three poisons of greed, anger, and ignorance, thereby purifying the eighteen realms of body and mind—the universe shaped by the interaction of the body, senses, and consciousness.

2.3. Harmonizing Body and Mind Prior to Meditation

In the works of Zhiyi referenced earlier, metaphors drawn from the craft of artisans are often employed to illustrate the essential prerequisites for practice. He explains that with the same principle, a practitioner cultivating the mind must adeptly balance the five factors to facilitate deep concentration (samādhi). Any misalignment or imbalance can create numerous obstacles, hindering the growth of virtuous roots.14

In harmonizing the five factors, the adjustments of diet and sleep emerge as critical components of preparation prior to engaging in meditation. The equilibrium of body, breath, and mind informs the various essential techniques employed during the stages of entering (rùdìng 入定), maintaining (zhùdìng 住定), and exiting meditation (chūdìng 出定). With regard to diet, we previously emphasized the significance of adequate clothing and food within the framework of the five conditions, distinguishing between food obtained through right livelihood and that acquired through wrong livelihood. Here, the focus is on the avoidance of extremes in food intake, including both excessive and insufficient consumption, as well as the intake of impure or contaminated food, which can exacerbate chronic ailments. In the SPC, the following is stated:

In the context of dietary adjustment, food plays a crucial role in sustaining the body and supporting progress in meditative practice. Overconsumption can lead to bloating, which impedes the flow of vital energy, resulting in mental obstruction and restlessness. Conversely, insufficient intake of food can weaken the body and disturb mental stability, thereby hindering meditation and concentration. Both extremes represent significant barriers to achieving focused attention. Additionally, the consumption of impure or contaminated food may induce mental confusion, while improper dietary choices can exacerbate chronic conditions and disrupt the equilibrium of the four elements within the body. As such, careful attention to diet is imperative during the initial stages of meditation practice.

第一、調食者，夫食之為法本，欲資身進道，食若過飽，則氣急身滿，百脈不通，令心閉塞，坐念不安；若食過少，則身羸心懸，意慮不固，此皆非得定之道。復次，若食穢濁之物，令人心識惛迷；若食不宜身物，則動宿疾，使四大違反。此為修定之初，深須慎之。

15

The discussion concludes by citing a verse from the Vinaya precepts: ‘Eat with moderation, delight in seclusion, keep the mind calm, and take joy in diligent practice—this is the teaching of all Buddhas’.16 The quotation above underscores the connection between diet and the flow of vital energy, asserting that an improper diet not only disrupts the meditative practice, but also impedes the mind’s capacity for tranquility. The role of the body in meditation is portrayed as essential, extending beyond mere preparation to being integral throughout the entire meditative process. In the eighth juan of the SPC, the section titled ‘Achieved Transparent View’ (xiūzhèng tōngmíng guān 修證通明觀) offers a thorough exploration of the interrelationship between the body, energy channels, and breath in the attainment of the first dhyāna. This analysis is notably more detailed than those found in earlier Chinese translations of meditative texts, and contrasts with the later Chan discourse after the tenth century, which increasingly prioritizes the mind while overlooking the significance of the body in meditation practice.

With regard to sleep, this concept is consistent with the fundamental principle of overcoming the five hindrances, particularly the idea that excessive sleep leads to mental dullness. Oversleeping clouds clarity of thought and hampers mental sharpness, thereby hindering progress in meditation. Therefore, it is crucial to regulate sleep in a manner that prevents the depletion of one’s virtuous potential. However, it is equally important to recognize that sleep is a physiological necessity and should not be excessively curtailed. In this regard, the GSV succinctly advises a balanced approach, stating that sleep should be ‘neither excessive nor neglectful’ (bùjiē bùzì 不節不恣).

The body, breath, and mind are interconnected as an integrated whole; however, each stage of sitting meditation—before, during, and after—requires specific attention to different aspects of this relationship. In terms of the body, practitioners must cultivate mindfulness of their actions and movements even before assuming the seated posture. This awareness is essential, as body movements are intricately linked to the breath. Coarse or abrupt movements can disrupt the breath, leading to heavier breathing, which in turn obstructs the cultivation of mental tranquility. When preparing for meditation, practitioners should begin by sitting comfortably in the designated space, ensuring both the body and mind are stable before assuming the seated posture. In the process of positioning the legs into a lotus posture, one may opt for either the half-lotus or full-lotus position. The proper sequence for adjusting the body is as follows: first, align both feet, then place the hands in the lap with the palms facing upward, and maintain an upright posture, ensuring that the head and neck are properly aligned.

Once the body is stabilized from the bottom up, proceed to the breathing step:

Next, open the mouth to expel impure air from the chest. The technique for expulsion involves exhaling through the mouth, allowing the breath to flow out naturally, while visualizing the release of obstructed energy from the body’s channels. Following this, close the mouth and inhale clean air through the nose.

次開口吐胸中穢氣。吐法開口放氣，自恣而出，想身分中百脈不通處，教悉隨氣而出盡。閉口，鼻中內清氣。

17

Repeat this process one to three times. Once the body and breath are harmonized, close the mouth so that the lips are gently touching and the tongue rests against the upper palate, with the eyes slightly closed to block out external light. Maintain a stable and upright posture, keeping the head, torso, and limbs still, as solid as a rock. This exemplifies the principle of ‘neither too loose nor too tight’(bùjiē bùzì 不寬不急). This is the adjustment of the body.

The next step involves the adjustment of breath, which is understood through the differentiation of four distinct states: wind (fēng 風), panting (chuǎn 喘), breath (qì 氣), and respiration (xī息). The first three states are associated with noisy, uneven, or irregular breathing patterns. In contrast, the ideal state of respiration is characterized by qualities of silence, smoothness, and continuity, resembling a gentle breeze that nourishes and calms the mind. To cultivate this ideal state, practitioners are advised to follow a three-step process: first, to relax and stabilize the body; second, to expand and open the body; and third, to visualize the breath permeating the pores, ensuring an unobstructed and smooth flow of breath.18 This guidance underscores the intimate connection between body and mind, utilizing visualizations of energy channels and pores to support breath regulation. The ultimate goal is to achieve a breath that is seamless and unimpeded, fostering mental tranquility, meaning a breath that is ‘neither tense nor loose, signifying the harmony of regulated respiration’19.

In the phase of mind adjustment, both the SPC and the BSV articulate that regulating the mind involves calming disordered thoughts and appropriately managing the mental states of sinking, floating, broadness, and urgency. The ‘sinking state’ refers to mental dullness, often accompanied by a lowered head, where attention should be redirected to the breath to restore focus. The ‘floating state’ denotes mental instability or distraction, and in such instances, directing the focus downward can help to stabilize the mind. The states of ‘broadness’ and ‘urgency’ are characterized by either excessive intensity of focus or scattered thoughts, both of which can lead to disturbances in breathing or physical discomfort. These guidelines offer strategies for refining the coordination of body, breath, and mind, progressively moving from a coarse to a more subtle state, thus fostering the cultivation of calmness in the early stages of meditation practice.

In meditation practice, there is no fixed sequence for harmonizing the body, breath, and mind. Instead, practitioners are encouraged to maintain a continuous awareness, adjusting these elements as soon as any imbalance is detected. This attentiveness helps to eliminate latent afflictions and prevent disturbances, thereby supporting the practitioner’s progress in meditation. An additional, critical consideration is the method of exiting meditation. In contrast to the process of entering meditation, which progresses from coarse to subtle states, emerging from meditation should follow a reverse order, transitioning from subtle to coarse. This approach facilitates a smooth reintegration into ordinary awareness.

To exit meditation, practitioners should first direct their focus toward an external object, open the mouth to exhale, and visualize the breath dispersing through the body’s hundred channels. This is followed by gentle movement, beginning with the shoulders and neck, then extending to the legs, ensuring that the body remains relaxed throughout. Next, the hands should be used to gently rub across the skin’s pores, followed by warming the hands by rubbing them together and placing them over the eyes. Once the hands are removed, the eyes may be opened. Practitioners should then wait for the body’s warmth and any perspiration to subside before fully concluding the meditation session.20

Neglecting these principles and hastily exiting meditation can lead to residual breath flow lingering in the body, potentially causing physical discomforts such as headaches and inducing restlessness in subsequent meditation sessions. It is noteworthy that the GSV emphasizes an approach to adjusting the body, breath, and mind that diverges somewhat from the aforementioned guidelines. Here, the focus shifts to an analysis of the interdependence among these three aspects, tracing this connection back to the initial stages of development characterized by ‘heat, life, and consciousness’ during early gestation. Following conception, these three aspects undergo changes every seven days over a period of thirty-eight weeks. The stages of development are classified as follows: ‘newborn’ in the initial phase, ‘adulthood’ in the stable phase, ‘decline’ in the aging phase, and ‘death’ in the final phase.21

Within this framework, Zhiyi analyzes the transformations of the human body through the stages of birth, existence, transformation, and dissolution, underscoring the continuous interrelation of body, breath, and mind throughout an individual’s life. Moreover, Zhiyi aligns these three elements with the core aspects of spiritual training: ethical conduct (śīla), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (prajñā). He asserts that ‘the body is the foundation for cultivating ethics, breath serves as the gateway to samādhi, and the mind enables the arising of wisdom’.22 Through the refinement of these aspects, one can transform the mind, which is bound by the cycle of samsāra, into one oriented toward enlightenment (bodhi), ultimately achieving true and enduring wisdom. In this way, the cultivation of body, breath, and mind facilitates the profound transformation from the ordinary state to the saintly, culminating in the attainment of sainthood.23

In early Chinese translations of meditation texts, discussions regarding preparatory practices before meditation are notably scarce. To the best of my knowledge, such content is primarily found within the Tiantai tradition, marking it as a distinctive feature of this school. A significant example is Tiantai zhizhe dashi chanmen koujue 天台智者大師禪門口訣 [Key Instructions on Chan by Master Zhiyi]24, a concise and foundational work compiled by his later followers. Another brief text, Chanmen yaolue 禪門要略 [Essentials of the Chan],25 found in the Xuzang jing 續藏經 [Continuing Tripiṭaka], serves as a condensed version of the BSV. These foundational preparatory guidelines for meditation are referenced by various masters active during the Tang Dynasty, such as The Qixin lunshu 起信論疏 [Commentary on the Awakening of Faith] by Master Wonhyo 元曉 (617–686) of Korea, as well as the Yuanjue jing daochang xiuzheng yi 圓覺經道場修證儀 [Rituals and Practices for the Achievement of the Yuanjue Jing] and the Yuanjue jing dashu 圓覺經大疏 [Great Commentary on the Yuanjue Jing] by Guifeng Zongmi 圭峰宗密 (780–840).26 However, they are notably absent from the writings of Chan masters after the Song Dynasty. This omission represents a significant and regrettable gap in the Chinese Buddhist tradition.

We now turn to the Tibetan meditation tradition, specifically examining the treatise The Lamp for the Path of Meditation (bSam gtan mig sgron), which originates from a turbulent period in Tibetan Buddhist history. This analysis will particularly focus on the preparatory practices outlined in the text. Similar to the situation within the study of Tiantai meditation practices, the Tibetan scholars tended to overlook the preparatory instructions for meditation presented in this treatise.

3. Meditation Texts of Tenth Century Tibet

The Lamp for the Eye of Meditation (bSam gtan mig sgron)27 is a seminal Tibetan treatise authored by the eminent Nyingma master gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye shes (ca. 844–943?). Widely recognized as one of the most significant surviving works of early Tibetan Buddhism, the text offers a rare and systematic presentation of meditative theory from the so-called “Dark Period” of Tibetan history.

bSam gtan mig sgron belongs to the genre of doxographical treatises (Skt. siddhānta, Tib. grub mtha’), and organizes its taxonomy of meditative systems according to their respective capacities to engender non-conceptual wisdom (Skt. nirvikalpa-jñāna). The text delineates a fourfold schema of ascending views: the Gradualist Approach (Tib. rim gyis pa), the Sudden Approach (Tib. cig car ba), the Mahāyoga system, and Atiyoga or the Great Perfection. The first two chapters are devoted to preparatory practices, chapter three outlines the treatise’s structural rationale, and chapters four through seven provide detailed analyses of the four meditative approaches in terms of view (Tib. lta ba), meditation (Tib. sgom pa), conduct (Tib. spyod pa), and fruition (Tib. ’bras bu). Each system is evaluated from the perspective of the next level, culminating in the affirmation of Atiyoga as the supreme vehicle.

A close reading of bSam gtan mig sgron sheds light on how tenth-century Tibetan scholastics conceptualized the stages of meditative realization and offers insight into the doctrinal development of Dzogchen prior to its later codification. The text is widely believed to have been composed in the early tenth century, and certainly no later than the mid-tenth century. Nupchen, its author, is traditionally counted among the twenty-five principal disciples of Padmasambhava. The book bSam gtan mig sgron provides a unique window into Buddhist thought during the Tibetan “Dark Period,” thereby challenging historiographical narratives that portray this era as one of doctrinal stagnation or decline (López 2014, pp. 55–62; 2018, pp. 13–16).

Despite its historical importance, bSam gtan mig sgron received little scholarly attention until the 1980s. Subsequent research focused on several key areas: the life and literary corpus of Nupchen; the text’s structural composition; and its doxographical framework, particularly the ordering of four vehicles in accordance with differing practitioner capacities (Dalton and van Schaik 2003; Esler 2012). It also figured prominently in discussions of the historical relationship between Dzogchen and Chinese Chan (Meinert 2007). Most recently, a complete English translation of bSam gtan mig sgron by Esler (2023) significantly advanced the accessibility and scholarly engagement with early Nyingma literature.

The present study focuses on a comparatively understudied portion of the treatise, its first two chapters, which offer a sustained treatment of preparatory practices. By examining these initial sections, this study aims to investigate how early Nyingma authors understood the role of preliminary disciplines, particularly in relation to embodied cultivation and the psychophysical conditioning necessary for advanced contemplative realization.

3.1. Preparations Before Meditation

The first chapter of bSam gtan mig sgron begins with a list of twenty-one distinct titles used to describe meditation, including terms such as ‘Meditation of the Great Vehicle Raft’ (Theg pa chen po’i gru’i bsam gtan) and ‘Meditation of the Precious Gem’ (Rin po che’i bsam gtan). These various designations are ultimately consolidated under the term ‘Meditation of the Yogic Eyes’ (rNal ‘byor mig gi bsam gtan), emphasizing the centrality of insight (lta ba) in meditation practice. This writing style of enumerating multiple titles to define a single concept is also found in early Sakya Lam ‘bras texts on the paths and results of practice.28 Such a practice may reflect a characteristic feature of textual composition in that period, meriting further scholarly exploration.

In the preliminary stage of yogic meditation practice, the text advises that practitioners seeking profound insight into saṃsāra and aspiring to attain great liberation should first select an appropriate external environment and make a firm internal commitment to their practice. With regard to site selection (gnas btsal), Nupchen advises choosing a location in high, mountainous forests, ideally marked by auspicious symbols such as Buddha handprints (phyag rgya), lotus flowers, crossed vajras (rdo rje rgya gram), Dharma wheels (‘khor lo), or places where the sounds of auspicious birds can be heard. Sites associated with previous saints are also considered particularly favorable, as their sacred blessings are believed to help remove obstacles and enhance spiritual inspiration. Additionally, the site should be neither too close to nor too distant from villages. In summary, the ideal location should be a quiet, secluded place conducive to meditation, minimizing worldly distractions and obstacles.

In examining the external factors involved in selecting a site for meditation, the text also probes the profound significance of choosing a tranquil location. It posits that authentic tranquility can be discovered in any part of the vast cosmos. To support this claim, Nupchen references scriptural sources, including The Essence of Secret Tantra (Skt. Guhyagarbha; Tib. gSang ba’i snying po), which affirms that ‘the ten directions of the great universe are inherently tranquil’ 29, and the Marvelous Tantra (rMad du byung ba), which proclaims, ‘The great tri-chiliocosm is my domain, my dwelling place, my palace’30. The text subsequently addresses the apparent tension between this expansive view of tranquility and earlier statements on site selection, offering a resolution rooted in a nuanced understanding of the concept. The text references Vimalamitra’s Commentary on the Sphere Tantra (Klong ‘grel), which elucidates this point by explaining the following:

if one fails to realize that true tranquility lies within the mind itself, then even in a physically quiet environment, the mind will remain unbridled, wandering freely throughout the vast expanse of the universe. In contrast, while the mind roams, the body remains physically confined to its immediate surroundings, akin to a marmot resting within its burrow.

31

From the ultimate perspective, ‘the optimal place is wherever one realizes the nature of the mind; it is also where one attains the profound wisdom of samādhi’ 32. However, for beginners with limited merit, adherence to established guidelines for selecting a conducive environment remains necessary. While solitude is valuable, practitioners should avoid excessive attachment to it. Additionally, they should refrain from choosing locations with extreme temperature fluctuations or those occupied by malevolent spirits, as such environments not only compromise physical safety, but also complicate access to essential resources for practice. Similarly, areas with significant disturbances—such as loud water sounds—or those governed by oppressive rulers, where distractions arise from nearby family or neighbors, or where isolation invites harassment, are discouraged. These factors, all of which may hinder meditative progress, should be carefully considered. In contrast, advanced practitioners, having established a suitable external environment, are able to skillfully observe both the body and mind through inner awareness, engaging a direct form of perception. This approach is succinctly expressed in The Quintessence of Bodhicitta (Byang chub sems kyi man ngag), which states the following:

To experience the ultimate truth, one should be like a solitary lion, free from disturbances, seeking alms a short distance from sources of attachment, and then gazing into the mirror of the mind.

33

Upon selecting an external environment, the practitioner should make a firm commitment to practice, aspiring ultimately to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of self and others through vows (dam bca’). As the text delves into the deeper meaning of solitude, it also explores the nature of these commitments, uncovering their inherent emptiness. The practitioner’s adherence to or deviation from specific actions does not alter the fundamental essence of the Dharma; thus, attachment to the mere act of fulfilling commitments is discouraged.

3.2. Conditions Required for Meditation

In the preliminary stage of meditation (sngon ‘gro), Nupchen identifies several essential conditions that must be fulfilled: listening to the teachings (thos pa), receiving oral instructions (man ngag), dispelling doubts (the tshom bcad pa), renouncing attachments (chags pa spang ba), and alleviating despondency (skyo ba bsang ba). At the beginning of practice, practitioners are encouraged to devote significant effort to listening to teachings, understanding scriptural meanings, and engaging in reflective contemplation. The practice of listening encompasses both hearing and thoughtful reflection. Regardless of whether one pursues the path of the cause vehicle (rgyu theg) or the fruit vehicle (‘bras theg), learning the teachings forms the essential foundation. However, interpretations of insight (lta), practice (sgom), conduct (spyod pa), and result (‘bras bu) vary between these two paths—a crucial distinction that Nupchen addresses in the bSam gtan mig sgron.

After listening to and contemplating the teachings, practitioners should receive the transmission of oral instructions. For the cause vehicle, Nupchen references the transmission lineage of seven generations of Chinese Chan masters, extending from Bodhidharma to Ha shang Mahāyana, as well as the Tibetan lineages that trace their origins back to the kings and monks. In the context of inner tantra practices, such as the Great Bliss Samādhi Instructions (‘Dod chags chen poi ting nge ‘dzin gyi man ngag), the Teachings on essence drops (gDams ngag thig le), and the Non-effort oral instructions (Bya ba med pa’i man ngag snyan khung brgyud pa), these teachings should be transmitted by qualified masters.

Regarding other preliminary practices, Nupchen outlines several key aspects, including resolving doubts about various practices, purifying sins and obstacles, and engaging in acts of generosity to accumulate the merit necessary for yoga practice. Additionally, practitioners are advised to relinquish attachment to external wealth. These preparatory conditions are essential to minimize obstacles during retreat, thereby facilitating focused and undistracted meditation.

Finally, Nupchen emphasizes the importance of examining the profound meaning of teachings in a secluded environment. If practitioners experience discomfort from prolonged isolation in a remote location, they are advised to reflect on the disadvantages of noisy surroundings and the benefits of solitude, such as receiving the protection of vow-keeping deities, experiencing clear dream signs, and cultivating the emergence of wisdom. Through contemplating the teachings, practitioners are reminded of the inseparability of the two truths and the intrinsic nature of wisdom, which transcends all limitations. The profound yoga practiced within the inner tantra tradition engages the naturally perfected dharmakāya, resting in its own fundamental ground. This state is not an emptiness achieved through purification, but rather, an intrinsic emptiness that lies beyond conventional conceptual distinctions.

The first chapter of bSam gtan mig sgron provides an overview of what Nupchen designates as ‘the meditation of the Yogic Eyes’. In this section, Nupchen explores several foundational aspects of meditation practice, including the selection of an appropriate site, the formulation of commitments, and preliminary preparations, such as relinquishing attachments and alleviating anxieties. These elements encompass both the practitioner’s choice of a retreat setting and the necessary internal refinement of concepts at various stages. However, this chapter does not offer a comprehensive account of the subject. In the second chapter, Nupchen further explores the characteristics of the four vehicles and the nature of the transmission of teachings within each. In the ensuing chapter, Nupchen further elaborates on the transmission and distinctive features of the four vehicles’ practices.

3.3. Principles of Practice and the Valuation of the Physical Body

Following the completion of preliminary preparations, the second chapter of bSam gtan mig sgron elaborates on the foundational principles and prerequisites for meditative practice across the four vehicles. Although formally presented as a continuation of the introductory section, this chapter remains firmly situated within the framework of preliminary practices. After a brief account of the historical transmission of meditation to China, Nupchen delineates the core tenets underlying each of the four vehicles’ respective approaches to practice.

In the vehicle of the “Gradual Approach” (tsen-min), practice is rooted in calm abiding, which serves as the basis for examining the continuity of mind and consciousness. Regardless of the degree to which afflictive emotions arise, antidotal methods—such as the cultivation of compassion and other related techniques—may be employed. Once familiarity with śamatha is firmly established, subsequent progress is said to unfold with relative ease. By contrast, the vehicle of the “Sudden Approach” (ston-mun) is characterized by an immediate engagement with ultimate truth, which is realized through practices that emphasize the unborn and unproduced nature of all phenomena. In this model, realization does not arise from gradual cultivation, but through an initial, direct recognition of the nature of mind.34

The Mahāyoga vehicle imposes more rigorous prerequisites. In addition to cultivating faculties of listening and contemplation—often through engagement with scriptural study—practitioners must undertake extensive training involving both subtle body practices and sustained interaction with qualified spiritual mentors. These practices include detailed instruction on channels (rtsa), luminosity (‘od gsal), and vital essences (thig le), as well as oral transmissions concerning the recognition of the dharmakāya and intrinsic luminosity at the moment of death. Upon the successful completion of these practices, and with the formal consent of one’s teacher, the practitioner may seek entrance into retreat (sgrub phug), wherein strict boundaries are observed.35 The goal at this stage is to stabilize the realization of great bliss (Skt. mahāsukha), enabling the practitioner to rest effortlessly in states of calm, equanimity, and equipoise.

The highest vehicle, Atiyoga, particularly as transmitted through the sublime yogic oral transmission (man ngag gi rgyud), relies on direct introduction that pierces the heart of the yogin. Transcending conventional language and external supports, this path maintains that the expanse of primordial wisdom is all-encompassing and inherently free from hierarchical structuring. Because it is entirely non-dual, all phenomena—everything seen, heard, tasted, smelled, or touched—arise spontaneously and radiantly within the self-arising expanse of wisdom (rang byung ba’i ye shes klong).36 Here, Nupchen articulates the essence of Dzogchen unequivocally: the key to practice lies not in the application of specific techniques, but in the direct, unmediated unveiling of intrinsic wisdom.

In the latter half of the second chapter, Nupchen identifies four supportive conditions upon which a practitioner may rely during meditative training: an accomplished spiritual mentor, appropriate karma mudrās, teachings suited to the individual’s capacity, and a suitable attendant who provides a conducive environment. With the exception of the teachings themselves, these supports largely involve the presence and assistance of others who accompany the practitioner along the spiritual path.

Foremost among these is the qualified spiritual guide, who must possess both experiential realization and legitimate transmission—having received authentic empowerments and oral instructions (man ngag) from a trustworthy lineage. Such a teacher not only understands the esoteric significance of the teachings, but is also capable of discerning a disciple’s meditative development and offering precise corrective guidance, similar to a skilled physician who accurately diagnoses and treats an illness. In the absence of a mentor who embodies integrity, realization, and doctrinal expertise, the practitioner is advised to rely on an experienced fellow practitioner who can offer guidance and clarity throughout the meditative process.

Second, the text outlines the essential qualities of an ideal retreat attendant or caretaker. This individual should exhibit sincerity, composure, courage, discretion, and exceptional endurance—traits deemed critical for sustaining an environment conducive to uninterrupted contemplation. Particularly in the context of the Mahāyoga retreat, the practitioner may also depend on a spiritual companion who exemplifies both wisdom and compassion, reflecting the elevated demands of tantric practice.

With regard to scriptural supports, Nupchen advises practitioners to select meditation manuals and doctrinal texts that correspond to their individual aptitude and spiritual disposition. The choice of appropriate textual resources ensures alignment between the practitioner’s capacities and the practices undertaken. Furthermore, in long-term retreat, the importance of a reliable attendant is reiterated: such a person must be steadfast, honest, courageous, and industrious, thereby offering both practical assistance and moral encouragement essential for sustained engagement in advanced contemplative training.37

Turning to the care of the body, Nupchen provides detailed guidance for eliminating unfavorable conditions and purifying the physical form. Drawing on the Great Nectar Tantra (bDud rtsi chen po’i rgyud), he outlines specific practices aimed at removing obstacles to practice. Practitioners are advised to maintain protective items—such as a vajra—to ward off spiritual threats, as well as aromatic substances such as benzoin and white mustard seeds. Additionally, they are encouraged to collect medicinal herbs, relevant medical treatises, moxibustion tools, needles, and protective mantras to dispel illness. Nupchen even recommends keeping weapons for self-defense, although he stresses that such implements must be used solely for legitimate protection and never for aggression or harm. Concerning daily necessities such as food and bedding, the guiding principle is the cultivation of contentment and the avoidance of greed. Dietary advice emphasizes nourishment, balance, and moderation in both morning and evening meals.38 Here, Nupchen invokes a recurring metaphor: the body as a raft that carries the practitioner across the ocean of saṃsāra to the far shore of liberation. This image reinforces an attitude of respectful care for the body—not as an object of attachment, but as a vital instrument in the pursuit of awakening.

The chapter concludes with a reflection on the deficiencies of merely studying and reflecting on scripture without engaging in sustained meditative cultivation. In contrast, the superior merit of direct meditative absorption is affirmed. To illustrate both the latent and manifest benefits of meditation, Nupchen cites extensively from the Chapter on Kāśyapa (‘Od srungs gi le’u), employing similes drawn from embryonic development and animal birth. These analogies emphasize that while the fruits of meditation may initially be subtle or imperceptible, they become unmistakably evident at the moment of death—when the practitioner transcends the limitations of corporeal existence.

Significantly, in his discussion of conduct (spyod), Nupchen offers a pointed exhortation to yogic practitioners to devote themselves single-mindedly to meditative absorption. To underscore this priority, he cites the Instructions of Accomplishment Yoga Tantra (rNal ‘byor grub pa’i lung), which explicitly discourages involvement in conventionally celebrated virtuous activities—such as the construction of stupas and temples, the recitation of scriptures, or the performance of prostrations. While meritorious in other contexts, these deeds are characterized as external acts of fabrication (spros pa), potentially disruptive to the inner stabilization necessary for deep meditative equipoise.

To reinforce this argument, Nupchen invokes the metaphor of both black and white clouds obscuring the sun, thereby illustrating that even ostensibly wholesome actions may obscure the clarity of meditative insight if they generate attachment or conceptual proliferation. In this light, the yogic path is presented as one that prioritizes inner stillness over ritual or moral display. Accordingly, Nupchen emphasizes the cultivation and maintenance of the samādhi of equanimity (Skt. upekṣā), a practice rooted in non-discrimination and even-minded awareness.39 This focus reflects a central tenet of his contemplative outlook: that yogins must become deeply attuned to the experiential field of meditative equipoise, free from distraction and conceptual engagement.

The foregoing analysis examined aspects of meditative treatises composed around the so-called “later dissemination” or even the perceived “decline” period of Tibetan Buddhism, particularly those sections concerned with the physical and psychological preparations requisite for entering sustained retreat. These Tibetan sources invite comparative reflection when set alongside earlier Chinese Buddhist meditation manuals composed several centuries prior. What insights might emerge from placing these two distinct yet thematically resonant traditions of meditative instruction into critical dialogue?

4. Toward the Ideal Body

4.1. Psychophysical Adjustment in Sino-Tibetan Meditation Practice

The teachings of Buddhism function as tailored prescriptions, specifically designed to meet the unique needs of practitioners. The practice of ‘impurity contemplation’ is intended to counteract attachment to the physical body, which is often driven by desire. Accounts of self-harm resulting from aversion to the body illustrate the harmful consequences of misapplying meditation methods. This article does not seek to diminish the importance of understanding the true nature of the mind in Buddhist practice; rather, it emphasizes that the body also plays a crucial role in the meditation process. In the study and transmission of meditation techniques, however, the body is often regarded as secondary, leading some practitioners to neglect or even reject the physical form in favor of abstract philosophical discussions. From a practical perspective, the body serves as the vessel for the mind, and maintaining physical health is essential for effective meditation and the exploration of one’s true nature. This forms the primary motivation for the investigation presented in this article.

This article explores the significance of physical and mental preparation prior to engaging in deep concentration practices within two major Buddhist traditions during the pre-modern period, namely the Tiantai school of Chinese Buddhism and the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism. During the later phase of the Song Dynasty in China, Chan Buddhism emerged as the dominant form of meditation, while the Tiantai tradition gradually declined, leaving behind primarily textual records. When examining the concepts and practices of Chan meditation in the Chinese tradition, it becomes evident that post-tenth century discussions predominantly focus on the nature of mind. However, these advanced teachings often present significant challenges for beginners and provide limited practical guidance. Consequently, many novices turn to a variety of texts, including the Sayings (yulu 語錄) and Koan (gongan 公案) of different masters, in an attempt to uncover the subtle meanings embedded within the words. Yet, a critical aspect that is often overlooked is the psychophysical state of the masters prior to entering intensive meditation. This raises an important question: did these masters follow a standardized method for preparing both the body and mind before engaging in serious meditative practice?

An analysis of the pre-modern Chinese and Tibetan meditation texts presented in this article reveals that, structurally, the Twenty-Five Preliminary Practices of Tiantai tradition offers a more comprehensive and systematically organized framework for the preparation of both body and mind. This framework progresses from external to internal practices and from coarse to subtle methods. Such an arrangement is designed to guide practitioners in regulating and harmonizing their physical and mental states prior to entering the meditation hall, thereby fostering a condition conducive to focused concentration and mental tranquility.

The first two chapters of the Tibetan text bSam gtan mig sgron display notable similarities to the Twenty-Five Preliminary Practices of the Tiantai tradition. Specifically, both texts address four key aspects of the ‘five conditions’: adequate clothing and food, a quiet and secluded place, cessation of distractions, and the presence of a qualified teacher. In terms of fostering harmonious support, both texts align closely, corresponding to Tiantai’s emphasis on the need for a teacher, knowledgeable companions, and external assistance from caretakers. However, the Tibetan text does not highlight the ‘renunciation of the five desires’ or the ‘abandonment of the five hindrances’, concepts that are central to Tiantai teachings. Despite this difference, both texts underscore the importance of moderation in sleep and diet. Tiantai Buddhism, in particular, links the threefold discipline of precepts, concentration, and wisdom to adjustments in the body, breath, and mind, respectively, offering a comprehensive framework for Buddhist meditation. This level of detailed analysis, however, is not found in the Tibetan text under examination.

In contrast, the bSam gtan mig sgron presents a more loosely structured discussion of preliminary practices, with occasional repetitions and a lack of the clarity found in Tiantai’s Twenty-Five Preliminary Practices. The bSam gtan mig sgron extensively cites classical texts and tantric literature, reflecting the intellectual milieu of Nupchen or the subsequent editors responsible for its composition. These references to classical and tantric sources provide valuable insights into the period, offering a reconfiguration of our understanding of the ‘Dark Age’ in Tibetan Buddhism. Within the framework of Tantric Buddhism, the text also emphasizes the high esteem in which the human body is held within Tibetan tradition. The metaphor of the human body as a raft for crossing the ocean of samsara is repeatedly invoked, illustrating the centrality of the body in the spiritual journey.

Notably, the text provides a comprehensive array of tools for overcoming obstacles, ranging from common medicinal practices—such as the use of medicines, needles, and moxibustion—to defensive weapons, mantras, ritual implements such as vajras, and items such as incense and mustard seeds. This diverse list reflects the distinctive features of the Tantric tradition, which integrates both physical and spiritual means to achieve enlightenment. This approach resonates with a sentiment expressed in Huisi’s writings: ‘May I find a secluded retreat in the remote mountains, with ample divine elixirs to fulfill this aspiration’, as previously quoted. Furthermore, the use of mantras to dispel disturbances caused by various demons is also discussed by Zhiyi in a section titled ‘Discerning Māras’ in the BSV. In this section, Zhiyi advocates for the practices of śamatha and vipaśyanā, specifically guiding practitioners to contemplate the true nature of Dharma, suggesting that both Māras and Buddhas are ultimately inseparable. However, if such disturbances persist, practitioners are instructed to recite mantras as a protective measure. The text explicitly states the following:

If a demonic affliction endures for many years and continues to cause significant distress, the practitioner should maintain mental fortitude and right intention, remaining resolute and unaffected by concerns for personal safety or fear. Under such conditions, it is recommended that practitioners recite the Mahāyāna Sūtras, along with other relevant mantras, to counteract the demonic influence. These recitations should be conducted silently, with a concentrated focus on invoking the Three Jewels. Furthermore, when not engaged in meditation, practitioners should continue reciting mantras for self-protection, engage in repentance, cultivate humility, and recite the prātimokṣa as part of their ongoing spiritual practice.

若諸魔境惱亂行人，或經年月不去，但當端心正念堅固，不惜身命，莫懷憂懼，當誦大乘方等諸經治魔呪，默念誦之，存念三寶。若出禪定，亦當誦呪自防，懺悔慚愧，及誦波羅提木叉。

40

One noticeable absence in Nupchen’s treatise is any substantial discussion of prāṇa—or more generally, breath—during the meditative process. From the perspective of contemplative practice, breath occupies the liminal space between body and mind. In tantric yogic systems, it constitutes a crucial stage in the cultivation of the subtle body. Numerous textual traditions elaborate on this theme, such as the Six Yogas of the Kālacakra (sbyor drug) and the Six Teachings of Nāropa (Na ro chos drug) in the Kagyü school. These texts offer rich material for further comparative study with Tiantai’s methods of śamatha-vipaśyanā, particularly concerning the operative function of breath in actual meditative praxis. Such an inquiry could significantly advance the comparative understanding of Chinese and Tibetan contemplative traditions.

4.2. The Somatic Significance of Preliminary Practice

The materials under consideration here show that preliminary practices are not merely preparatory techniques, but constitute profound processes of transformation involving both body and mind. Viewed through the lens of cultural embodiment, these practices underscore the centrality of the body as the primary locus of religious cultivation. As Pierre Bourdieu articulates in his theory of habitus, culturally inscribed dispositions are internalized through embodied practice and social interaction. The preliminary exercises prescribed by Zhiyi and Nupchen can thus be understood as modes of perceptual and behavioral reconditioning, effected through physical movement, postural alignment, and breath regulation.

Zhiyi’s BSV and GSV both outline twenty-five preparatory methods, offering systematic guidance across domains ranging from ethical conduct and dietary restraint to environmental selection and the harmonization of bodily, respiratory, and mental states. As mentioned, Zhiyi declares, “When the body is properly regulated, the foundation of the path is solidly established,” emphasizing the indispensability of physical stability as the basis for meditative progress. For example, in his instructions on dietary discipline, he notes that both excess and deficiency in food intake can disrupt the qi (氣) and channels and further destabilize mental clarity. In the realm of breath regulation, Zhiyi distinguishes four stages—wind, panting, breathe, and subtle breath—guiding the practitioner toward a refined respiratory state described as “fine and continuous, faint as though existent and nonexistent.” Such somatic refinement not only facilitates meditative absorption, but also instills an embodied cosmology, aligning the practitioner’s physical comportment with the broader metaphysical structure of the Buddhist path.

Nupchen’s bSam gtan mig sgron presents a parallel yet culturally distinct model of somatic discipline. Prior to entering intensive meditation, Nupchen urges practitioners to seek retreat in auspicious highland forests, far removed from worldly entanglements. His detailed prescriptions for solitary retreat—including the preparation of medicinal supplies, ritual instruments, and nourishing food—reveal a deep concern for the maintenance of the practitioner’s physical integrity. In Nupchen’s view, the “precious human body,” endowed with leisure and fortune (dal ba), is a rare vessel for realization and must be preserved as the indispensable support for the unfolding of gnosis (ye shes). Here, the body is not treated as a hindrance, but rather as a condition for the realization of dharmadhātu wisdom, resonating strongly with Thomas Csordas’s formulation of the body as “the existential ground of meaning-making.”

Despite their distinct cultural milieus, both Zhiyi and Nupchen position bodily regulation at the very threshold of contemplative training. This emphasis extends beyond external ritual propriety to encompass the transformation of perception, affect, and volition. Zhiyi offers subtle calibrations of body, breath, and mind across the threefold process of entering, abiding in, and emerging from meditative absorption. Likewise, Nupchen’s extensive emphasis on the preliminary stages of hearing and reflection of Dharma—intended to dispel cognitive obscurations and emotional attachments—exemplifies a layered transformation process fully consonant with the cultural embodiment perspective. The body, in this view, is not a passive bearer of culture, but an active site of world-construction and spiritual becoming.

Michael Radich’s analysis of somatic reconfiguration in Buddhist soteriological discourse further elucidates this dynamic. Rather than treating the body as an object to be negated or transcended, both the Tiantai and Nyingma systems conceive of the body as a cultivated and technologized medium of practice. Radich identifies various paradigms within Buddhist literature that frame the body through models of negation, control, and transformation. The approaches of Zhiyi and Nupchen clearly exemplify the latter: somatic transformation is neither incidental nor optional, but central to the architecture of the path. Tiantai emphasizes the internal stabilization of bodily and mental processes through gradual integration, while Nyingma foregrounds dynamic transformation and sensory refinement as distinctive features of its tantric modality.

Moreover, both figures situate bodily preparation within an encompassing religious lifeworld. Zhiyi, for instance, uses metaphors drawn from the arts—such as the artisan and the lute player—to illustrate the ideal of bodily regulation: just as when tuning a string, the practitioner’s body should be neither too tense nor too slack. Nupchen, by contrast, frames the entire cosmos as a field of practice, reminding practitioners that even in the solitude of retreat, one cannot transcend saṃsāra without abiding in the nature of mind. These perspectives reflect the cultural embodiment theory’s emphasis on the mutual constitution of the body and external world, wherein contemplative transformation entails not merely internal discipline, but the somatic enactment of an alternative mode of being in the world.

From this perspective, the preliminary practices in both the Tiantai and Nyingma traditions function as embodied processes of soteriological subject formation. Practitioners do not merely adopt doctrinal views, but undergo a recalibration of posture, breath, and perception—restructuring their sensorium to align with Buddhist cosmology and the path to liberation. As Bourdieu observes, genuinely internalized habitus manifests through seemingly effortless conduct. The design of preliminary practices in both Zhiyi’s and Nupchen’s instructions aims precisely at cultivating such embodied, spontaneous enactments of the Dharma.

In short, the preliminary stage is not a mere prerequisite for meditation, but an integral phase wherein the practitioner is already inhabiting a bodily mode of being resonant with Buddhist soteriology. The body is at once the medium of practice and a generative site of meaning.

5. Conclusions

This study examined preliminary practices in pre-modern Chinese and Tibetan Buddhist traditions through a comparative analysis of Zhiyi’s and Nupchen’s meditation texts. Drawing on close textual readings and theories of embodiment, it emphasized the role of the body in shaping the contemplative subject prior to meditative absorption. Rather than treating meditation as an exclusively mental or interior experience, the analysis underlines the structured and culturally embedded somatic disciplines that render such experiences possible.

Zhiyi’s “Twenty-five Preparatory Practices” and Nupchen’s retreat protocols both demonstrate that bodily regulation—through posture, breath, diet, and environment—is foundational to the cultivation of meditative equipoise. These practices reflect distinct doctrinal and cultural frameworks, yet converge in their recognition of the body as a necessary and regulatable basis for realization.

By highlighting the initial conditions for practice, this study contributes to a growing effort within Buddhist studies to balance attention to inner experience with the material and cultural contexts of its cultivation. While the theoretical lens of cultural embodiment does not exhaust the complexity of lived practice, it offers a productive heuristic for tracing how the body participates in the making of the religious goal. In this light, preliminary practices emerge not as peripheral preliminaries, but as generative sites for understanding the interweaving of somatic discipline, cosmology, and liberation in Buddhist traditions.