Assessment of Differences Between the Ports of Rotterdam, Valparaíso and San Antonio Towards Smart Ports, Emphasising Digital Technologies

Abstract

The objective is to evaluate the differences between the Chilean ports of Valparaíso and San Antonio and the port of Rotterdam in their journey towards smart ports, focusing on Blockchain (BC) technologies, Artificial Intelligence (AI), big data, Internet of Things (IoT), 5G networks and Digital Twins (DT), according to Port 4.0 and 5.0 models. The methodology is a qualitative assessment based on scores from the analysis of Port 4.0 technology information, including labour relations, environmental care and community integration for Port 5.0. The results confirm Rotterdam as representative of a ‘Smart Port’ for Ports 4.0 and 5.0, showing gaps with Chilean ports, which are rated as ‘incipient implementation’ in Port 4.0 and ‘in transition’ in Port 5.0. These differences are due to factors such as investment, financing, infrastructure, governance, regulation, digital human capital, organisational culture and innovation, and the characteristics of the port ecosystem.

1. Introduction

Seaports are fundamental to open economies in a globalised world [1,2,3], as they link production and consumption, both domestic and foreign [4], and are decisive in the growth and development strategies of many countries [5,6]. It is estimated that maritime transport accounts for nearly 80% of the volume of world trade and 70% of its value [7]. Ports handle both mass-market goods and other high-value goods [8]. Ports are necessary for keeping global supply chains active, and their management reflects the operational efficiency of their port activity [9].

Ports have been advancing in digitisation and automation in order to improve the efficiency of their logistics [10,11]. In recent decades, different generations of ports have been recognised, in line with logistical challenges and the emergence of new technologies. Flynn et al. [12] suggests adding a new category of ports to the four previously recognised, by incorporating the concept of fifth-generation ports (Port 5.0). The incorporation of Port Community System (PCS) technology in ports, as well as its subsequent development, has driven improvements in port management, reducing costs and streamlining operations through more fluid communication and greater digitisation of tasks [13]. However, in order to achieve a smart port concept, whether under a Port 4.0 or Port 5.0 model, the presence and integration of all available technologies that harmonise and facilitate its activity is required [14,15]. This is a major challenge, which makes it advisable to first look at the experiences of the world’s leading smart ports, such as those in Rotterdam, Hamburg and Shanghai [16].

The fundamentals of the Port 4.0 model are based on the digitisation of processes and the integration of advanced technologies, such as Blockchain (BC), Artificial Intelligence (AI), big data, Internet of Things (IoT), 5G networks and Digital Twins (DT). The aim is to optimise the efficiency and safety of port operations, which are being subjected to increasing pressures resulting from the growth in global commercial traffic and the larger size of cargo ships [17,18]. Here, big data and its real-time analysis are of great importance in achieving these goals [19]. For its part, port automation reduces idle time and minimises costs. For example, in cargo handling, it reduces waiting times and facilitates real-time transport management.

The transition from the Port 4.0 to Port 5.0 model represents a vision that considers the community in which it is embedded. In Port 5.0, working conditions, environmental considerations and community relations become relevant [20]. This also involves collaboration with stakeholders to maintain efficient [21], safe operations with minimal environmental impact [22]. Digital technologies are used in this model with a view to achieving safer and more collaborative working environments, with sustainable practices and incorporating citizen participation [23]. Community participation contributes to social cohesion and is necessary for strengthening a sometimes conflictive relationship [24]. The Port 5.0 model also requires that technological advances be put at the service of environmental sustainability and its ecological objectives [25], such as minimising the carbon footprint and improving environmental management [26], developing environmentally friendly operations [27].

The transition from conventional ports to the Port 4.0 model poses an enormous challenge, which is compounded by the additional requirements imposed by Port 5.0. First, these advanced technologies must be available in the context of adequate infrastructure support, so that they can then be efficiently integrated into port activities. At the same time, it is necessary to raise awareness and train the workforce in the digital transformation of their jobs, understanding that some of them may resist change and/or see their jobs at risk. Finally, the impact that this modernisation may have on local communities must be addressed, through dialogue with their spokespersons and authorities, who often and for various reasons tend to hinder projects promoted by ports [28]. This phenomenon of resistance to technological change has been widely studied in the literature [29].

Within the framework of studies that consider assessments of port digitization, it is worth highlighting some of the efforts that have been made. For example, using the AHP technique from Buiza-Camacho-Camacho et al. [30], they focused on generating indicators and associated weightings for the assessment of Mediterranean ports. Nguyen et al. [31], meanwhile, considers the technological and environmental challenges facing ports and discusses the approaches that have been taken to technological applications in smart port management and energy systems, with a focus on Vietnam. Among their findings, they highlight the importance of different perspectives on the prioritisation of technologies implemented in ports. On the other hand, in a more recent study, Iberahim et al. [32] focus on Malaysia’s main port to understand the impacts of digital technology, aimed at port employees, on port management. They found varying degrees of preparedness among port employees, identifying factors that inhibit the adoption of port technologies. However, previous studies do not consider the transnational application of indicators that allow for the comparison of port performance. This study also seeks to contribute to filling that gap.

The aim of this article is to qualitatively assess the gaps or differences between the Chilean ports of Valparaíso and San Antonio and the port of Rotterdam in terms of their progress or trajectory towards smart ports, with an emphasis on digital technologies such as BC, AI, big data, IoT, 5G networks and DT, as well as their derivatives machine learning and automation, using Port 4.0 and Port 5.0 as models. The above can be summarised in three questions to be answered, in accordance with the qualitative evaluation methodology outlined below: (1) Is the port of Rotterdam, considered one of the most automated globally, a good example of these models? (2) How far are the Chilean ports of Valparaíso and San Antonio from the evaluation carried out on the port of Rotterdam? and (3) What factors explain these differences? It is hoped that this work will provide critical insights and meaningful comparisons that will guide the way towards a more efficient, sustainable and inclusive through learning best practices. However, it should be borne in mind that a number of factors affect the capacity to adopt technological capabilities, such as [33]: (a) Adopting port’s characteristics: Know-how, Organization Support, Organizational structure, Financial capacity, A port’s network embeddedness, Risk taking. (b) Characteristics of the innovation: Costs, Relative advantage/perceived usefulness, Complexity/perceived ease of use, Compatibility, Trialability, Observability. (c) Stakeholder pressures: Customer, Competitive port, Regulatory body, Societal.

The work is organised as follows: Section 2 explains the methodological characteristics of the research. Next, Section 3 provides an exhaustive review of each of the six technologies identified in the previous paragraph, in terms of their benefits or usefulness and the challenges they face. Section 4 presents the results of the evaluation for the ports of Rotterdam, Valparaíso and San Antonio. It describes how these technologies interact in a smart port and indicates the evaluation associated with each port. Finally, Section 5 offers some conclusions.

2. Materials and Methods

The qualitative assessment methodology assigns scores on a scale of 1 to 5 to each of these six technologies for each port that make up a Port 4.0, according to the existence, implementation, and impact of each of them on their respective port activities. At the extremes, a score of 1 represents that there is no record or public evidence of the existence and implementation of the technology analysed, and a score of 5 represents that the technology has a total and strategic presence, meaning that it is fully integrated into the management and operations of the port. The scoring scale determined to evaluate each of the six technologies (Port 4.0) is shown in

Table 1. Port 4.0 assessment scale.

Value	Description
1	There is no public record or evidence of the existence and/or implementation of the technology analysed (non-existent or not implemented)
2	A pilot project or similar initiative is being implemented (incipient presence)
3	There is a project in operation, but with limited or expanding scope (observable presence)
4	The technology is used significantly in several port operations (established presence)
5	The technology has a comprehensive and strategic presence, meaning it is fully integrated into port management and operations (comprehensive and strategic presence and implementation)

:

The final score for each port in terms of technological relevance corresponds to the simple average of the scores obtained for each of its technologies. In the case of technologies that replace any of those reviewed and considered here, before assigning a rating, their relevance and ability to deliver the expected achievements or benefits were considered, given the characteristics of the port.

The six technologies are given equal weighting, as there is no theoretical consensus on the importance of each one and, as Nardo et al. [34] points out, weightings are naturally value judgements. Furthermore, some advantages of this form of evaluation have to do with its simplicity when explaining it and its usefulness, especially when there is no agreement among stakeholders and when the elements evaluated are considered equally important [35]. The technologies address complementary aspects of port performance. As these are three different ports, with different needs, characteristics and strategies, there are no solid reasons to claim that one technology is more important than the others. Therefore, the use of the simple arithmetic mean is the most appropriate approach.

On the other hand, the Port 5.0 assessment is configured by adding three dimensions for a holistic evaluation: (1) environmental care, (2) working conditions and labour treatment, and (3) community integration [20,22,36]. Using a scale from 1 to 5, at the extremes, a score of 1 represents poor, highly problematic or absent practices, and a score of 5 represents effective practices that serve as benchmarks at the national and international levels (see

Table 2. Port 5.0 assessment scale.

Value	Description
1	Practices largely absent or problematic
2	Minimal compliance with standards in response to pressure
3	Systematic efforts observed, although with challenges or areas for improvement
4	Sustained good performance and proactive practices
5	Benchmark practices at national and international level

).

Taking into account the same reasons as in the evaluation of the six technologies, the elements that make up Port 5.0 are given equal weight in the evaluation. Due to the importance that the model gives to these requirements, the final result for Port 5.0 is calculated as the simple average of both assessments, i.e., that of Port 4.0 and that of these latter dimensions, giving them the same relative weight. The evaluation obtained will correspond to the categories of “Early Implementation”, “In Transit” and “Smart Port”, in accordance with

Table 3. Ranges of the general assessment scale.

Rank	Colour	Definition
$\left[2,3\right)$		Early implementation
$\left[3,4\right)$		In transit
$\left[4,5\right]$		Smart Port

and Figure 1.

The relevance of these three dimensions in the Port 5.0 model led to them being given the same weighting as technological factors. Therefore, the final result in this case is based on the simple average of both evaluations.

Now, for both models, if there is a clear prospect that a ‘project or initiative being implemented’ will enable the port to achieve the next higher score within a reasonable time frame, in the case of scores 2, 3 and 4, the score will be expressed as 2.5, 3.5 and 4.5, respectively. With the aim of allowing greater sensitivity to capture more accurate variations of subjective reality in the assessment.

The ports evaluated were chosen for their relevance: the port of Rotterdam because it is one of the western ports with the highest container traffic and a global benchmark for performance [37]. Meanwhile, the ports of Valparaíso and San Antonio in Chile are the most important ports in that country in terms of container traffic [38].

As the work is based on official sources, press reports and specialised websites, the first step was to organise and summarise the information on each port, translating it into useful knowledge, and then validate and interpret it to enable a structured and contextualised comparison between the ports. This information was compiled between 10 November 2024 and 10 June 2025 (see Appendix A). Information sources published in English and Spanish were consulted. Marketing materials and opinions reproduced from written sources were excluded.

Table 4. Qualification of Assessors and Validators.

Tipe	Detail
Assessor 1	Economist and expert in port development.
Assessor 2	PhD, Expert in International Trade.
Assessor 3	PhD, Researcher in data management.
Validator	PhD, Researcher in logistics and port management.

Note: In order to ensure the reliability of the evaluations, after each evaluator assigned the corresponding scores to each port, in cases where there were differences, they agreed on an appropriate score. Therefore, it is a consensus assessment.

shows the profiles of the port performance assessors and the validator of the assessment tool used.

The sole purpose of this evaluation methodology is to highlight the differences between the ports examined. Therefore, it does not seek to guide decision-making as in the case of techniques such as MCDM, AHP, ANP, DEX, MACBETH, MAUT, DEMATEL and DRSA.

3. Technologies for Optimising Port Activity

3.1. Blockchain in Port Optimisation

BC technology is defined as a distributed and immutable digital ledger, composed of transaction records in blocks, cryptographically chained, which allows modifications to be detectable and difficult to alter without the consensus of the network. This structure guarantees traceability, data integrity, and the difficulty of modification in decentralized environments [39,40,41].

In the port sector, this technology can make transactions more transparent, providing systems with real-time functionality and streamlining maritime communications by addressing challenges related to data security and transaction visibility. It can be applied in areas such as Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID), digital navigation, and mobile devices, among others [42,43,44].

BC is a digital technology that acts as an immutable and decentralised ledger, thereby eliminating the need for intermediaries and guaranteeing the integrity of the information exchanged [45]. It uses robust encryption mechanisms, such as secure hash and consensus algorithms, which protect confidential information [46], reducing the risk of fraudulent manipulation. This is highly relevant for the security of port logistics operations [47], where sensitive information is exchanged [48]. Real-time information exchange streamlines the coordination of port activities, resulting in more efficient resource allocation [49]. Furthermore, as a reliable technology, it allows for the elimination of physical documentation that can be manipulated, such as bills of lading [50], which in turn translates into cost savings for port operators and logistics companies, as well as contributing to a reduction in carbon footprint [51,52].

Its implementation and integration with other technologies and/or platforms enables better port management. For example, with IoT and RFID tracking technology [53], accurate traceability of containers throughout the supply chain can be achieved [54]. The use of near-field communication chips in containers allows traceability information to be securely stored and retrieved [55]. And platforms such as Hyperledger Fabric can guarantee security and robust access control, appropriate for the sensitive nature of port operations [56]. All these examples have a positive impact on the quality of service offered by ports.

Another application of BC is smart contracts, which are digitised and automated, eliminating the need for paper and significantly increasing the speed of these types of operations [57], streamlining administrative procedures, reducing operational risks [58] and consequently improving workflow management [56]. This application makes it possible to overcome classic logistics traceability challenges, such as unreliable data and opaque information [59].

Like any relatively new, complex technology requiring high initial investment, the adoption of BC in ports faces several challenges ahead. The first is a thorough understanding of this technology and how it interacts with others [25]. It is likely to face resistance to change from its participants and operators, who are traditionally conservative when it comes to technological advances [60,61]. A new challenge facing this technology is that of cybersecurity [62,63]. Other challenges relate to legal uncertainty in the face of current regulatory frameworks and their changing nature [64,65], its limited scalability in the face of a large volume of logistics operations [66,67], the limited interoperability between different BC [68], and its lack of integration with legacy systems [43]. Based on the background information presented, the evaluation of the ports of San Antonio, Valparaíso, and Rotterdam as Ports 4.0 requires that technology be fully integrated into port operations. For example, the port must have a fully operational PCS Portbase operating with blockchain.

3.2. Artificial Intelligence in Port Optimisation

AI is a discipline based on the study of computer science, capable of performing tasks associated with human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, perception, decision-making, and understanding natural language. These systems are based on algorithms and models that allow them to process information, acquire data patterns, and adapt to new situations [69,70].

AI is a relevant technology to optimize port activity and achieve logistic efficiency, reduce costs, and minimize errors in the supply chain [71]. The proof of this can be seen in the successful implementations in the ports of Rotterdam, Hamburg, and Singapore [72]. AI drives automation and enables predictive analysis and machine learning.

The automation of cranes, for example, reveals a port’s shift towards smart and sustainable practices [73], as does the automation of docks. In turn, predictive analysis is relevant for strategic decision-making, such as space optimisation and capital and operating cost estimates [72]. Predictive maintenance, supported by AI and data from sensors installed on port equipment, makes it possible to predict potential failures in advance, extending the useful life of equipment and contributing to greater safety and operational efficiency [74,75]. With the right algorithms and machine learning models, it is possible to accurately predict ship delivery and waiting times [76], as well as arrival times, which is important for terminals to minimise disruptions [77].

Other associated uses of this technology include artificial vision that monitors dock cranes, ensuring greater workplace safety [78], and video surveillance systems that detect and respond to threats in real time [79,80], before they cause significant damage [81]. Thus, AI stands as a relevant tool for defending against evolving cyber threats [82].

In terms of environmental sustainability practices, AI plays a role in optimising energy use and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, as well as reducing sulphur content [83] and substantially improving fuel efficiency, as demonstrated by the case of Maersk Line and the port of Rotterdam [84].

The implementation of AI in ports also faces challenges. First, it requires investment in advanced technological infrastructure, hardware and software [84], and specialised professionals [85]. Integration with legacy systems is complex, as it would require the creation of a hybrid infrastructure that takes advantage of both systems [86]. Other challenges relate to data and privacy. Large amounts of data from diverse sources and formats in real time require advanced data integration and engineering processes [87]. Facial recognition poses privacy risks, so it is necessary to create government frameworks that prioritise human rights and ethics [88,89]. The idea behind this regulation would be to ensure data confidentiality without hindering research and applications [90].

In short, it is possible to highlight the application of various AI tools in port areas, such as the following: (1) Berth planning and allocation. Optimisation and reinforcement learning algorithms (models that learn to distribute berths based on times, tides, size and priority of ships) [91,92,93]. (2) Yard management and container movement. Deep learning together with simulation and prediction models (to forecast flows, congestion and optimal vehicle routes) [94,95,96]. (3) Predictive maintenance of port equipment. Supervised machine learning (regression models or neural networks that analyse data from IoT sensors to anticipate failures) [97,98]. (4) Security, surveillance and access/cargo control. Computer vision and deep learning in Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) (for number plate and face recognition or automatic anomaly detection) [99,100]. The elements considered allow us to determine that, for a port to obtain the highest score on the Port 4.0 assessment scale, it is required that an AI-based system be fully integrated into port activities such as productive maintenance and traffic management, to mention a few areas.

3.3. Big Data in Port Optimisation

Big data is an environment that allows the processing of large volumes of data, in different formats, at high speed [101].

Big data analysis is used in ports to optimise the logistics chain, which reduces costs and enables just-in-time operations [102]. Its integration into this chain also aims to improve service quality, which is important for effective logistics planning [103].

Big data enables causality and correlation analyses, which help determine weather routing and tracking [104], as well as ship performance and navigation data [105]. Similarly, real-time analysis allows for the optimisation of route and fleet management, reducing delays and ensuring service levels [106]. All of these are relevant aspects for efficient port management. Here, machine learning is fundamental in predicting ship arrival times, as these models can determine arrival times fairly accurately based on historical trajectories [77].

Big data analytics also provide detailed, real-time information on the condition of goods, including temperature and humidity, to verify that transported products maintain their quality [107]. Big data and deep learning promote proactive management of port terminals, adapting processes in real time [108]. Big data, together with AI and DT, optimise the supply chain by creating digital replicas of assets and processes, strengthening the resilience of the supply chain [109].

In terms of port security, big data contributes to improving emergency alert and management systems, promoting a safer logistics environment [110]. Advanced data visualisation techniques can be used to identify trends, patterns and anomalies, reducing the risks of port management [111]. In conjunction with DT and AI techniques such as CNN and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), which provide accurate predictions, it is feasible to improve security management in port operations [112].

At the same time, big data also contributes to greater fuel efficiency, reducing polluting emissions by analysing ship routes and environmental conditions [113], contributing to the ecological transition of modern ports [102] and to constant progress in the safety and energy efficiency of maritime operations [105]. Big data also enables the monitoring of environmental parameters, such as emissions and energy consumption, which are crucial for ensuring compliance with environmental regulations [114]. Big data information encourages sustainable practices, such as alternative energy vehicles, with the aim of minimising the environmental impact of logistics operations [115].

Big data environments present challenges. The complexity of big data systems can complicate the identification and mitigation of security threats, whether unauthorised access, data leaks, or other potential internal dangers [116]. Furthermore, the integration of data from various sources, such as shipyards and ship operations, adds complexity to analyses [117]. This is due to the diverse and geographically dispersed nature of maritime data sources [113]. Qualified personnel are also required in ports to use these tools effectively, although resistance to change can hinder data-driven management [118]. An additional challenge is data protection, which requires the implementation of robust access control mechanisms alongside clear data governance frameworks [119,120,121]. The integration of Big Data in the execution of advanced and real-time analysis of the port system implies, according to the evaluation system developed in this work, that the port receives the highest score in terms of Port 4.0.

3.4. IoT in Port Optimisation

IoT technology relies on sensors and devices that are integrated into various assets, allowing them to collect and transmit data autonomously [122,123], connectivity that is crucial for supporting data-driven decision-making [124]. This reduces asset downtime and ensures smoother operation [125].

Data interpretation and response automation can utilise machine learning models [126]. The role of IoT in the automation of port operations makes it possible to perform tasks such as predictive maintenance and process control, which are important for the proper functioning of port facilities [127], thus ensuring the reliability of automated systems [128]. AI and big data enable remote management, which is key to maintaining an efficient and safe port environment [129]. The automation of repetitive, rule-based tasks using robotic processes can be of great value in dynamic environments such as ports [130].

With IoT, it is possible to monitor cargo containers in real time, which aids logistics planning and improves security measures, reducing the likelihood of damage to goods [131] and improving the visibility and control of port operations [132]. With real-time data, IoT can significantly reduce the risk of theft and loss by alerting stakeholders to anomalies or unauthorised access [131]. It can also be used to control ship traffic, optimising the flow of vessels, reducing congestion and minimising waiting times [133]. Its implementation in the cold chain guarantees its maintenance, ensuring product quality during transit [134].

IoT can collect real-time data on environmental parameters relating to air quality, water, noise levels and energy consumption, which are parameters for identifying patterns and trends and defining environmental management strategies [135,136]. They also contribute to sustainability by optimising fuel consumption, managing emissions and ensuring compliance with environmental regulations [137,138,139].

Despite its many applications, the implementation of IoT in port logistics faces challenges. To begin with, it must be considered that IoT solutions in ports require large investments in hardware and infrastructure, as they demand a large number of sensors and robust networks to support data transmission and processing [140,141].

IoT devices are exposed to security threats such as data leaks, malware attacks, and unauthorised access, vulnerabilities that can stem from inadequate encryption, insufficient authentication, and data collection [142,143]. Data governance is relevant in smart ports, bearing in mind that it is necessary to improve the data lifecycle and its management to maximise the potential of IoT in terms of operational efficiency and sustainability [144].

Within the framework of the evaluation being conducted by this study, for a port to obtain the highest score in its Port 4.0 rating, it requires that the IoT be integrated into the port’s management and operations. For example, through the deployment of sensors throughout the port area, supported by a specialized platform.

3.5. 5G Network in Port Optimisation

5G refers to the set of fifth-generation mobile technologies and networks, which have a latency of less than 1 ms and a speed of up to 10 Gbps, improving the connectivity of different devices [145].

Ultra-reliable, low-latency 5G technology facilitates rapid communication between IoT devices. This enables high-speed data processing and is useful for monitoring, controlling and making real-time decisions about port activity, resulting in increased productivity, reduced downtime and greater efficiency [146,147], as well as improvements in the safety and accuracy of automated and remote equipment operations [148].

Data collection and analysis facilitates predictive maintenance [149], which is valuable in port ecosystems where real-time decisions are necessary for logistics optimisation [150] and for achieving greater operational efficiency [151,152]. AI combined with 5G can automate complex tasks [153] and thus optimise resource allocation [154]. AI and automation can improve the quality of service offered, which is relevant for maintaining the continuity of port operations [155]. Reliable 5G connectivity is appropriate for remotely operated cranes and drones, as any delay could have serious consequences [156]. It also facilitates maritime traffic management by providing real-time information on vessel routes and port conditions, allowing for better coordination of activities, reducing congestion and delivery times [157], information that promotes better maritime traffic management [158]. This technology also enables full connectivity between different modes of transport, whether road, rail or sea [159].

5G enables the use of portable devices to monitor workers, which increases their safety and well-being [160]. With AI and 5G, cargo can be monitored in real time, reducing theft and smuggling, which is very important for ensuring the integrity of port operations [161]. A very useful implementation is the segmentation of the 5G network, which helps to manage the cybersecurity risks associated with this technology [162]. Zero Trust architectures are even more reliable, as they require authentication for every access request, regardless of its origin [163].

Like all the technologies reviewed above, 5G networks face several challenges. The base infrastructure has high implementation costs, which are necessary to realise its full potential [164], requiring devices and infrastructure to be upgraded to make them compatible with 5G. Network segmentation can reduce costs by optimising resource utilisation [165,166]. As the increased connectivity of this technology exposes it to new cybersecurity threats, network segmentation is necessary to mitigate these risks [167,168]. Regulatory compliance, in terms of limited high-frequency spectrum availability and emission standards, is another aspect to consider and manage [169]. It also requires ongoing technical training of personnel to ensure the effective operation of 5G-compatible systems [170].

5G technology offers reduced latency and high capacity for simultaneous connections, enabling real-time port operations, equipment automation and constant communication between IoT systems, something that was not possible with previous networks such as 4G or Wi-Fi. The highest score in the Port 4.0 assessment can be achieved to the extent that it has been integrated into its operations and management, for example, through the deployment of 5G networks in its smart port strategies.

3.6. Digital Twins in Port Optimisation

Several simulation tools have long been used in port management, but it is the convergence of the digital and physical worlds, via the IoT, that has enabled the creation of a modern, globally connected port ecosystem [171]. Digital twin technology was designed to reproduce the state of physical operating systems, creating a dynamic virtual representation [172]. The integration of technologies such as IoT, AI and 3D modelling are useful for capturing and simulating the real dynamics of the port environment [173]. The incorporation of big data is required for the proper functioning of DT, as it is necessary for real-time updates and analysis [174].

By creating virtual prototypes, DT promote innovation even before their implementation in the real world [175]. This capability helps to optimise designs by minimising the risks associated with construction and operational changes [176], and to discern how equipment would behave under different conditions and levels of stress or wear in order to more accurately predict potential failures [177].

In ports, DT can integrate physical infrastructure models and their operational flows and movements, including ships, trucks, and containers. This integration is facilitated by IoT and real-time data, creating an interactive and synchronised virtual replica of the port [178], which improves port security and operational control [179] and will ultimately optimise continuous decision-making, making a difference compared to traditional simulation methods [180].

These dynamic models are constantly updated with real-time data to reflect the current state of the port [181]. AI and machine learning further enhance their potential for analysis and simulation with advanced data [182,183]. DT enable real-time monitoring and management of port infrastructure, leading to increased logistical efficiency through predictive maintenance [184], improved resource allocation and risk mitigation [185], optimising maintenance programmes and reducing unplanned downtime, thereby extending the useful life of equipment [186,187].

The accuracy of DT requires real-time data collection in order to properly monitor port activities and environmental conditions [171]. They can also contribute information on air quality and environmental sustainability, enabling the development of strategies to improve environmental outcomes [188].

The costs of developing and implementing DT are very high, as they require appropriate IT infrastructure and components, along with highly qualified professionals capable of digitising physical equipment and processes, as well as modelling and integrating systems. Generating a digital representation that covers all assets and processes is a daunting task, given the complexity and scale of port operations [178,189]. Another significant challenge in implementing this technology lies in the integration of different data sources and interoperability between various software programmes, in order to avoid isolated information storage systems and ensure uninterrupted operation [190]. It is also important to ensure the privacy and security of information for the successful implementation of DT [191,192]. Other challenges include encouraging innovation and the use of digital technologies [193,194] and investing in training programmes to develop the required skills [195].

To be evaluated as Port 4.0 with the maximum score, ports must fully integrate these technologies into their management and operations, for example, through models that allow the simulation of port operations.

4. Port 4.0 and Port 5.0: Differences Between the Ports of Rotterdam, Valparaíso and San Antonio

4.1. Interaction and Integration of Technologies for a Smart Port

Another relevant element in smart ports is the integration and interaction of the technologies reviewed above. Both models (4.0 and 5.0) highlight the importance of achieving improvements in efficiency, sustainability, and competitiveness through the digital transformation of port operations.

BC is a technology available for protecting critical data and transactions in IoT networks, facilitating access control and communication for IoT devices, which is required for sustaining the operational security of smart ports [196], and ensuring the traceability of transactions within the port system [197]. In addition, it contributes to better container management, ensuring data transparency throughout the supply chain [198]. The combination of BC with big data and IoT can facilitate port operations by providing useful information and improving operational efficiency [199]. The ports of Valparaíso and San Antonio had a BC tool since 2019, but in 2022 it ceased to be operational, resulting in a lower rating for both ports.

For its part, the incorporation of AI into logistics encourages automation and intelligent processing, increasing efficiency and reducing costs [73]. AI and machine learning algorithms enable early intrusion prevention, which is crucial for maintaining cybersecurity in smart ports [200], while also ensuring the reliability of communication systems. It also improves the analysis of the information received, enabling predictive maintenance, efficient port operations and greater navigation safety [201]. In conjunction with big data, AI makes it possible to predict equipment failures, making port operations more efficient and safer [202]. In addition, AI can predict environmental impacts and propose corrective measures to minimise the environmental footprint [84,203].

In this integration of digital technologies, data and its quality are necessary for accurate analysis, so standardising it is a challenge that must be addressed [153,201]. In other words, when there are multiple sources of information, sophisticated algorithms and methodologies are needed to ensure that it is accurate and processable [204]. Big data plays a fundamental role here when it comes to analysing enormous amounts of data generated by IoT devices and then incorporating these analyses into decision-making processes [25]. AI analyses these large volumes of data in real time, making it possible to detect anomalies and respond to threats, thereby increasing the security of IoT ecosystems [205]. Similarly, they can detect unusual activities in order to take measures to improve the physical security of smart ports [206]. All of this aims to improve the overall competitiveness of ports by providing useful information and reducing downtime [72,207].

In turn, IoT devices are very important for collecting enormous amounts of information from different port operations, such as containers and ship traffic, providing real-time location, status and security, which are crucial aspects for efficient port management [133]. 5G-compatible IoT allows large volumes of data to be processed at high speed, delivering relevant information for efficient decision-making in smart port operations [153,160,208]. This is because 5G increases transmission speed and reliability, enabling real-time communication for decision-making in the port environment [209,210]. Its high bandwidth and low latency allow cybersecurity risks and interoperability issues to be addressed in real time [160].

This technology is required for the remote control of cranes and other port equipment, as well as for autonomous systems and predictive maintenance, which require ultra-reliable, low-latency communication [146,211]. This allows operations to be carried out efficiently and safely from a distance, reducing labour requirements and minimising human error [212,213]. The synergy between AI and 5G enables ports to react in real time to operational changes, making smart ports more agile and better able to respond to market demands [153,211].

When combined with 5G, DT provide a virtual representation of port operations, accurately assisting navigation and docking processes, thereby reducing environmental impact by optimising fuel consumption [210]. The predictive capacity of DT, in conjunction with real-time data and advanced analytics, reduces downtime and extends the useful life of port infrastructure [212,214].

The integration and interaction of these technologies creates synergies: IoT and 5G act as the nerve centre, collecting and transmitting information in real time from the physical environment of the port. Big data and AI function as the brain, processing and analysing this information to extract operational intelligence, make predictions and optimise decisions. BC provides integrity, trust and security for this information and exchanges or transactions. And DT provide the interface to comprehensively visualise, simulate and control this complex ecosystem. These interactions are the most complete manifestation of a virtual port operating in real time, that is, a smart port.

There are challenges and limitations associated with its implementation that must be kept in mind. These include: the transition to a smart port requires significant investment; port authorities must be open to technological innovation and new management practices; data and transaction privacy and security; complex integration processes and interoperability challenges; latency issues; and high energy consumption.

Gradually overcoming the challenges associated with each technology, especially those related to its effective integration, is key to realising the vision of a smart port and optimising port activity in all its dimensions. It is not only a technological transformation, but also a strategic shift towards the future of smarter and more sustainable port management. Despite these challenges, the development and growing adoption of these technologies will continue to transform the maritime industry, driving efficiency, sustainability and innovation in port ecosystems globally.

4.2. Port Assessment

With regard to the assessment of the ports of Rotterdam, Valparaíso and San Antonio concerning the use of technologies and the implementation of measures specific to ports 4.0 and ports 5.0, the results are summarised in

Table 5. Qualitative Assessment Ports of Rotterdam, Valparaíso and San Antonio.

Technology	Port of Rotterdam	Port of Valparaíso	Port of San Antonio
PCS	4.5 1,2	4 14–16	3.5 20,28
BC	4.5 3–13	4 17–19	3.5 21–27
AI	5 29–31	3 32–34	3.5 35–37
Big data	5 29,38	3 39,40	2.5 41
IoT	5 29,42–46	2	2 47
5G a	4 43,48–51	2 52,53	3.5 54–57
DT	5 58,59	1 60	1 61
Port 4.0 (average)	4.5	2.7	2.8
Assessment	Smart Port 4.0	Early Implementation	Early Implementation
Environmental care	5 62–69	4 34,70–78	4 25,26,79–85
Working conditions and labour treatment	4.5 67,86–90	3.5 35,91–96	3.5 37,84,94–100
Community integration	4.5 67,101–104	3 77,105–118	3 83,84,106–135
Partial Port 5.0 (average)	4.7	3.5	3.5
Port 5.0 (average)	4.7	3.1	3.1
Assessment	Smart port 5.0	In transition	In transition

Note: Superscripts see Appendix A. ^a Private industrial networks.

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With the information analysed and the methodology adopted, the results reveal a clear superiority of the port of Rotterdam over the ports of Valparaíso and San Antonio, both in the implementation of Port 4.0 technologies and in the additional dimensions of Port 5.0. This difference is reflected in the final average scores for Port 4.0: Rotterdam (4.5), Valparaíso (2.7) and San Antonio (2.8); and for Port 5.0: Rotterdam (4.7), Valparaíso (3.1) and San Antonio (3.1). This confirms Rotterdam as a smart Port 4.0 and 5.0, while Valparaíso and San Antonio reflect an incipient, limited and fragmented adoption of the technologies that make up Port 4.0, both being rated as ‘in transition’ due to their scores of around 3.0 when it comes to Port 5.0. There is no contradiction in these results for Chilean ports, given that the first model is partial or technological and the second is holistic or comprehensive, which better reflects the actors involved and the desirable characteristics to be considered a smart port.

Rotterdam exhibits a comprehensive approach, combining advanced technological implementation with robust environmental, labour and community management, making it a global role model. The Chilean ports analysed show a considerable technological gap compared to Rotterdam, with incipient efforts, initiatives under development or limited implementation, such as in the area of IoT in both cases, and in 5G or a good substitute for it in the case of Valparaíso, still far from accessing DT technology. Rotterdam’s superiority is attributed to a comprehensive strategy, supported by its workers and the Dutch authorities, both locally and nationally. Chilean ports not only face a significant technological gap, but also structural and political challenges, particularly in their relationship with the community.

Figure 2a shows the performance gap between the port of Rotterdam and the ports of San Antonio and Valparaíso. The greatest gap is observed in the deployment of DT technology, while the smallest gap or separation with respect to the Chilean ports occurs in: 5G technology (Port of San Antonio) and BC (Port of Valparaíso). In contrast, Figure 2b shows an overlap in the performance of the ports of San Antonio and Valparaíso.

The gaps identified for Chilean ports cannot be attributed to a single cause, but rather to a combination of factors, including differences in investment levels and access to financing, the state of enabling infrastructure, governance and regulatory frameworks, the availability of human capital with digital skills, organisational culture towards innovation, and the characteristics of each port ecosystem. One obstacle in this area, which is considered decisive, is excessive environmental permitting, which hinders or delays port expansion and improvement projects. This not only rejects or delays physical works and their tenders, increasing project costs, but also postpones the implementation of the infrastructure that supports the new technologies required by modern ports. In Valparaíso, there is the case of the Cerros de Valparaíso Terminal or Expansion of Terminal 2.

The project began in 2013, with a projected investment of USD 600 million, but the multiple Consolidated Report on Requests for Clarifications, Corrections or Additions (CRRCCA) generated by the Environmental Assessment Service determined that it was not until December 2024, more than a decade later, that it was included among the five largest ports under environmental assessment, with no clear implementation date to date. Construction is estimated to begin in 2028–2029 and operation in the 2030s. Two other projects are facing complex situations: the Cruise and Breakbulk Terminal Project, complementary to Terminal 2, and the Single Concession Model. In San Antonio, the Outer Port Project has been under evaluation since 2020 with significant delays due to environmental permits CRRCCA, collection of studies and postponed tenders. The activities planned for 2026–2028 have been postponed for more than four years. This is in stark contrast to Rotterdam, where regulations require that deadlines be met and where the most complex port projects, corresponding to integrated permits, must not exceed 26 weeks or 6 months. This limited timeframe allows for reliable planning and avoids arbitrary decisions.

The interaction and integration of the technologies analysed is essential for their implementation. In other words, the implementation of each technology depends, in turn, on its ability to integrate and interact with other technologies. Thus, the rating achieved by each technology also reflects its level of integration and interaction with others. Thus, in cases where the technology is only just being implemented as a pilot project (for which it receives a rating of 2 points), its interaction with other technologies is less than in cases where the technology has a full and strategic presence in port management and operations (in which case it receives 5 points). On the other hand, the integration of working conditions, environmental protection measures and community integration initiatives complement the technological assessment, insofar as they progress from absent or problematic practices (associated with 1 point in the assessment) to practices that establish ports as national and international benchmarks (for which the port obtains 5 points).

Limitations

A limitation of this study is the asymmetrical possibility of access to port authorities, determined by the resources available. The methodology relied mainly on secondary sources. Despite the methodology used, it is recognised that the subjective nature of the assessment could limit the value of the results [215].

5. Conclusions

The Chilean ports of Valparaíso and San Antonio perform best in the implementation of PCS and BC technologies. However, they score low in 5G network and DT application. In particular, they show the greatest gap with respect to the port of Rotterdam in the latter technology, which translates into a significant area for improvement.

Future projections for the path to smart ports favour San Antonio. Its new PCS with Single Port Window being implemented and its Outer Port Project, which is close to being approved, may positively change the results and ratings obtained here. The projection for Valparaíso is more conservative, given that it faces geographical, heritage and urban restrictions that limit its capacity for expansion. If the scenario is challenging for San Antonio, it is even more so for Valparaíso.

Chile is a small country with an open economy in a globalised world, where foreign trade and, consequently, its ports play a key role in the national growth and development strategy, which makes it urgent to close the gaps that have been identified. In this regard, it is important for local or national authorities with some responsibility for the development and maturation of Chilean port activity to consider the following: (1) formulate a roadmap for the digital transformation of ports with deadlines that cannot be postponed; (2) re-examine environmental regulations, severely limiting evaluation deadlines with compliance requirements; (3) promote and support investment in port infrastructure and technology; (4) prioritise technological adoption with a strategic approach; (5) promote port governance models that drive innovation and effective collaboration among all actors in the ecosystem; and (6) establish a system for continuously monitoring port progress in all possible areas, using key performance indicators and conducting periodic benchmarking, with public access to non-strategic information. And, in the specific cases of Valparaíso and San Antonio, continue to advance in the three additional dimensions required by Port 5.0, particularly in consolidating their relationship with the community.

Due to the changing nature of technology and port management processes in areas such as those mentioned above, the scores provided may change, especially in the face of new challenges. In this regard, one of the most important developments is the incorporation of sixth-generation maritime communication networks [216], but also the use of green hydrogen for decarbonisation [217], to name a few.

In future studies, it is essential to include key quantitative indicators of port performance, such as TEU traffic, average vessel waiting time, and PCS adoption rates, to provide context on technological readiness.

On the other hand, future studies may provide the levels of importance of the technologies used in ports, with their respective weightings. In this regard, it is worth highlighting the importance that the incorporation of new technologies has acquired in ports, generating improvements in performance, efficiency, time reduction, and quality of work, among others.