Survey on Low-Cost Underwater Sensor Networks: From Niche Applications to Everyday Use
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Underwater Acoustic Modems
2.1. Introduction to Underwater Wireless Communication
2.2. Acoustic Modems for Offshore Applications
2.3. Low-Cost Acoustic Modems
3. Underwater Acoustic Positioning Systems
3.1. Introduction to Underwater Positioning Systems
3.2. Acoustic Positioning for Offshore Applications
3.3. Low-Cost Acoustic Positioning Systems
4. Applications
4.1. New Applications Enabled by Low-Cost Acoustic Modems and Positioning Systems
4.2. Current Challenges and Future Trends
5. Summary and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Manufacturer and Model | Developer | Max Range | Bit Rate | Freq. Range | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
LF | DiveNET: Sealink {C,S} [58] | commercial | 8 km | 80 bps | 5–15 kHz |
Modem prototype for μAUVs [53] | research | 200 m | 55 bps | 11–14 kHz | |
MF | UCSD prototype [51] | research | 350 m | 200 bps | 32–38 kHz |
Nanomodem prototype [52,54] | research | 2 km | 40 bps | 24–28 kHz | |
Tritech Micron Data Modem [13] | commercial | 2 km | 40 bps | 24–28 kHz | |
Tianjin + Guilin modem [57] | research | {2.5–5} km | {0.125–1} kbps | 20–30 kHz | |
Applicon Seamodem [33] | commercial | 100s of m | {0.75, 2} kbps | 25–35 kHz | |
DSPComm Aquacomm Gen2 [15] | commercial | 8 km | {0.1, 1} kbps | 16–30 kHz | |
DiveNET: Sealink M [58] | commercial | 1 km | 78 bps | 15–30 kHz | |
Subnero research modem [35] | commercial | 1 km | 15 kbps | 20–32 kHz | |
Popoto low power modem [32] | commercial | 1 km | 10 kbps | 20–40 kHz | |
HF | ahoi modem [12] | research | 200 m | 260 bps | 50–75 kHz |
ITACA modem prototype [16] | research | 200 m | 200 bps | 85–200 kHz | |
Waterlinked M64 [11] | commercial | 200 m | 64 bps | 31–250 kHz | |
Desert Star SAM-1 [14] | commercial | 240 m | 1 kbps | 34–48 kHz or 65–75 kHz | |
MODA modem [60] | research | 80 m | 1 kbps | 50–70 kHz | |
Xiamen Uni. modem [61] | research | 500 m | 200–300 bps | 35–45 kHz | |
South Korea Univ. modem [62] | research | {100–300} m | {0.2–5} kbps | 70 kHz | |
FAU modem [63] | research | 50 m | 100 bps | 100–150 kHz |
System Possibilities | System Requirements | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Method | Agent | Anchors | Self-Localization | Silent Positioning | High Update Rate | Simple Scalability | Resilience Clock Drifts | No Sync. Anchors | No Sync. Agent Anchors | Simplex Transmission |
OWR, TOA | TX | RX | - | - | ✓ | - | - | (✓) | ✓ | ✓ |
OWR, TDOA | TX | RX | - | - | ✓ | - | - | - | - | ✓ |
OWR, TOA | RX | TX | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | - | (✓) | ✓ | ✓ |
OWR, TDOA | RX | TX | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | - | - | - | ✓ |
TWR, TOA | TX/RX | RX/TX | ✓ | - | - | - | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | - |
Device/Author | Algo. | Developer | Setup | Method | Area | Accuracy | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nanomodem [52] | [90,91] | research | LBL/SBL | TWR | 50 m × 50 m | lack of ground truth | TWR on network layer |
Quraishi et al. [92] | [92] | research | SBL | OWR | 30 m × 15 m | 1.66 m RMS error | anchors transmit periodic (GNSS sync.) acoustic beacons |
ahoi modem [12] | [93] | research | LBL | TWR | 70 m × 70 m | 1.36 m RMS error, 1.2 m CEP (GPS with 2.5 m CEP for ground truth) | BlueROV2 self-localization |
ahoi modem [12] | [94] | research | SBL | TWR | 25 m × 25 m | positioning error below 0.4 m (RTK-GPS) | two anchors in small buoys |
Ruland et al. [95] | [95] | research | LBL | OWR | — | — | simulation, self-build transducers |
Jang et al. [97] | [96] | research | — | TWR | — | — | backscatter communication feasibility study |
WaterLinked Underwater GPS [98] | — | commercial | SBL | OWR | 300 m × 300 m | 0.2% horizontal, 1% vertical | synchronization via cable or GPS at the beginning of a mission (0.17 m/h drift). |
Rypkema et al. [99] | [99] | research | USBL | TWR | 140 m × 100 m | 6.4 m mean error to GPS, when the AUV surfaces | anchors transmit periodic (GPS sync.) acoustic beacons. AUV is synchronized with a CSAC |
Blueprint Subsea Seatrac [6] | [55] | research/ commercial | USBL | TWR | 1000 m range | 0.1 m range resolution | integrated IMU and depth sensor |
Cerulean Sonar Mark II [100] | — | commercial | USBL | OWR | 500 m range | 0.1 m slant range resolution | 0.5 m/h slant range error accumulation due to clock drifts |
Cerulean Sonar Mark III [101] | — | commercial | USBL | TWR | 500 m range | 0.1 m slant range resolution | TWR to eliminate clock drifts |
Sonardyne Micro-Ranger 2 USBL [4] | — | commercial | USBL | — | 995 m range | 5% slant range | typically no self-localization |
Legacy Acoustic Modems and Positioning | Low-Cost Acoustic Modems and Positioning |
---|---|
Oil and Gas pipes inspection with AUVs | Micro AUV swarm coordination |
Ship to submarine communication and positioning | Internal water quality assessment |
Tsunami prevention systems | Divers mission coordination |
Coastal surveillance and monitoring | Rope-less crab and fish traps |
Military applications (MCM, ASW, REA, ISR) | Low-cost ROV positioning |
Data muling in open sea with large AUVs | Data muling in internal waters with low-cost AUVs |
Work class ROV USBL and positioning | and ASVs |
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Campagnaro, F.; Steinmetz, F.; Renner, B.-C. Survey on Low-Cost Underwater Sensor Networks: From Niche Applications to Everyday Use. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 125. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11010125
Campagnaro F, Steinmetz F, Renner B-C. Survey on Low-Cost Underwater Sensor Networks: From Niche Applications to Everyday Use. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2023; 11(1):125. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11010125
Chicago/Turabian StyleCampagnaro, Filippo, Fabian Steinmetz, and Bernd-Christian Renner. 2023. "Survey on Low-Cost Underwater Sensor Networks: From Niche Applications to Everyday Use" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 11, no. 1: 125. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11010125