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Article

Long-Term Effect of Lime Application on Quantity and Quality of Soil Organic Carbon in Double Rice Cropping System

by
Yuxiang Zhang
†,
Zhigang Wang
†,
Yanni Sun
,
Yongjun Zeng
and
Shan Huang
*
Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Crop Physiology, Ecology and Genetic Breeding, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Agriculture 2025, 15(6), 650; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15060650
Submission received: 25 February 2025 / Revised: 13 March 2025 / Accepted: 17 March 2025 / Published: 19 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)
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Abstract

:
Lime application is an effective measure for improving rice yield and alleviating soil acidity, whereas its long-term effects on the sequestration and stability of soil organic carbon (SOC) remain unclear in paddy fields. Here, we report on the first 10-year long-term experiment to examine the impact of lime application on the quantity and quality of SOC in an acidic paddy field with double rice cropping. Lime was applied every 4 years with and without rice straw incorporation. Size and density fractionation and solid-state 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy were employed to examine the physical fractions and chemical composition of SOC, respectively. The results showed that lime application had no significant effect on either the total SOC concentration or stocks. Compared to the non-lime control, lime application led to a 60.0% decrease in the free particulate organic carbon (fPOC) concentration but a significant 17.9% increase in the concentration of occluded particulate organic carbon (oPOC) while reducing the concentration of mineral-associated organic carbon (MAOC) by 5.3%. Chemical composition analyses revealed a 5.1% reduction in the content of alkyl carbon (C) and a 6.8% decrease in the ratio of Alkyl C to O-Alkyl C. Lime application and straw retention had a significant interactive effect on the composition of SOC. Under straw removal, lime application increased the oPOC concentration by 56.6%, while no significant effect was observed under straw return. Lime application had no significant effect on the MAOC concentration under straw removal, whereas it reduced this concentration by 9.8% under straw return. Under straw removal, lime application reduced the proportion of Alkyl C by 9.5%, while no significant effect was observed under straw return. Therefore, we conclude that although the total SOC stocks are not altered, long-term lime application reduces the content of MAOC and Alkyl C in the acidic paddy soil, suggesting that long-term liming may reduce SOC stability.

1. Introduction

Soil acidification is a widespread form of soil degradation globally, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions [1]. The primary causes of soil acidification in croplands include cation removal by crop uptake, acid deposition, and the excessive application of chemical fertilizers, particularly nitrogen fertilizers [2]. Soil acidification deteriorates soil physical, chemical, and biological fertility, thus reducing crop yield and grain quality [3]. Rice is the staple food in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia [4]. Soil acidification has been a major factor limiting the improvement in rice yield in paddy fields in this area [5].
Lime application is a widely used and effective practice for ameliorating soil acidity. It is well known that liming can raise the soil pH, reduce aluminum toxicity, and improve the soil’s physicochemical properties and microbial activity, thereby enhancing crop yield [6]. As a critical indicator of soil fertility and functioning, soil organic carbon (SOC) plays a pivotal role in improving crop growth and mitigating climate change through carbon (C) sequestration. However, the impact of lime application on SOC content is variable, with positive, negative, and neutral effects reported [7]. On the one hand, liming improves the soil structure and nutrient availability, which enhances plant biomass production. Under conditions where crop residues (e.g., rice straw) are returned to the field, the increased plant biomass translates into higher organic carbon inputs, potentially leading to SOC accumulation [8]. On the other hand, in systems without substantial organic inputs, such as those where straw is removed or organic fertilizers are not applied, liming can accelerate SOC decomposition. The increase in soil pH and associated microbial activity may enhance the breakdown of native organic matter, promoting carbon mineralization rather than sequestration [9]. Furthermore, the change in SOC is a slow process and requires an extended timescale to be detected [10]. Therefore, long-term field experiments are urgently required to clarify the effect of lime application on SOC stocks. In a meta-analysis, Wang et al. [11] found that there was no study reporting the effects of liming on SOC in rice paddies with >5 years following lime application. To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first to examine the long-term (≥10 years) impact of liming on SOC stocks in rice paddies.
In addition to the quantity of SOC, the composition and fraction distribution of SOC, i.e., SOC quality, significantly affect soil functioning and the stability of SOC sequestration [12,13]. Labile SOC fractions, such as free particulate organic C (fPOC), rapidly participate in nutrient cycling and microbial metabolism and thus are closely associated with crop nutrient uptake [14]. In contrast, stable fractions, such as mineral-associated organic C (MAOC), play a key role in long-term C storage, soil structural maintenance, and nutrient buffering [15]. As a soil amendment, lime application may significantly affect SOC quality by increasing the soil pH and enhancing microbial activity. First, liming may promote the decomposition of unprotected and free organic residues [16]. Second, lime application may improve the formation of soil aggregates, thereby increasing the proportion of occluded organic C [17]. Third, liming can influence MAOC stability by altering microbial carbon use efficiency (CUE) and mineral–organic interactions. A decrease in CUE under liming conditions may result in a lower conversion of plant-derived carbon into microbial residues, which are a key source of MAOC [18]. However, most of the previous studies regarding the effects of long-term lime application on SOC quality focus on upland or grassland ecosystems, with little information available for acidic paddy soils with lowland rice. Unlike upland soils, paddy soils are subjected to periodic flooding, which creates unique biogeochemical conditions that regulate SOC stabilization and decomposition. Under anaerobic conditions, SOC decomposition is primarily driven by anaerobic microbes, which rely on alternative electron acceptors such as iron (Fe3+) and manganese (Mn4+) oxides instead of oxygen [19]. However, liming increases the soil pH and alters the redox potential of flooded soils, potentially influencing the solubility and reactivity of Fe and Mn oxides. A higher pH may reduce the ability of these metal oxides to bind organic carbon, thereby increasing SOC turnover and reducing long-term stabilization. Additionally, liming shifts the microbial community composition, favoring bacterial over fungal dominance and potentially enhancing the microbial decomposition of SOC [20]. The combined effects of increased pH, altered redox potential, and microbial shifts may lead to changes in SOC fraction distribution and stability in paddy soils, which may differ from those observed in upland soils.
To address this knowledge gap, the present study conducted a 10-year field experiment to investigate the long-term effects of lime application on both the quantity and quality of SOC in acidic paddy soil in subtropical China. We hypothesize that long-term lime application does not significantly alter the total SOC stocks, but influences the SOC fraction distribution and chemical composition, potentially reducing SOC stability in acidic paddy soils. To test this hypothesis, we employed soil physical fractionation and solid-state 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to examine the impact of lime application with rice straw incorporation or straw removal on SOC physical fractions and chemical compositions, respectively.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Site Description

The long-term experiment was initiated in 2015 at Zengjia Village, Shanggao County, Jiangxi Province (28°31′ N, 115°09′ E). The experimental site is located in a typical subtropical climate zone, with an average annual rainfall of 1650 mm and a mean annual temperature of 17.5 °C. The cropping system was winter fallow–early rice–late rice. The soil is classified as a Typic Stagnic Anthrosol. To determine the baseline soil characteristics before the experiment, a field survey was conducted in 2015. Prior to plot establishment, soil sampling was conducted using a five-point composite sampling method with a diagonal approach. Five cores (5 cm diameter, 0–15 cm depth) were collected systematically, with one core at the intersection of the field’s diagonals and four equidistant cores along the diagonals. The collected soil samples were homogenized to form a representative composite sample. The properties of the soil in the 0–15 cm plow layer before the experiment were as follows: the soil exhibited strong acidity, with a pH of 5.2, and a relatively low SOC content of 10.5 g kg−1, bulk density of 1.1 g cm−3, total nitrogen (N) of 1.1 g kg−1, total phosphorus (P) of 0.4 g kg−1, total potassium (K) of 3.9 g kg−1, alkali-hydrolyzable N of 115.0 mg kg−1, available P of 15.9 mg kg−1, available K of 64.0 mg kg−1, available iron of 45.19 mg kg−1, available magnesium of 42.63 mg kg−1, and a clay content (<0.002 mm) of 17.0%.

2.2. Experimental Design

A completely randomized block design was employed with four treatment plots in each block: (1) control (−L-RS), no lime was applied with rice straw removal; (2) lime application (+L-RS), lime was applied every 4 years in 2015, 2019, and 2023 before soil plowing in the early rice season at a rate of 2.1 t Ca(OH)2 ha−1 (the lime application rate was determined based on a preliminary soil test following the method described by Liao (2018); specifically, 10.0 g of surface soil (0–15 cm) was mixed with 40 mL of 0.2 mol L−1 CaCl2 solution, and titration was performed using 0.15 mol L−1 Ca (OH)2 to raise the soil pH to 7.0, with this method ensuring that the applied lime was sufficient to neutralize the soil acidity while preventing over-liming), aboveground rice straw was removed; (3) straw retention (−L+RS) with no lime application, straw was cut into approximately 10 cm pieces and evenly distributed following rice harvest (the straw management regime is widely employed in the experimental region as it facilitates an even distribution and reduces resistance to mechanical tillage, and shorter straw fragments decompose more rapidly due to the increased surface area for microbial colonization); (4) lime application with straw retention (+L+RS), lime and straw were applied the same way as in the +L-RS and −L+RS treatments, respectively. The four-year liming interval was chosen based on previous experiments, which demonstrated that the effect of lime application on soil pH gradually diminished over time and became insignificant by the fourth year [21]. Each treatment was replicated three times, resulting in a total of 12 plots. To ensure an unbiased treatment distribution, a completely randomized block design was employed, with each block containing all four treatments. The assignment of treatments within each block was determined using a random number generator to eliminate potential biases arising from spatial variability. Each plot covered an area of 25 m2, and buffer zones were maintained between plots to prevent cross-contamination. The rates and application regimes of N, P, and K fertilizers were identical across the four treatments. For early rice, fertilizers were applied at rates of 120 kg N ha−1, 33 kg P ha−1, and 62 kg K ha−1; for late rice, the rates were 150 kg N ha−1, 33 kg P ha−1, and 62 kg K ha−1. Urea was used as a N fertilizer, and 50%, 20%, and 30% of the N fertilizer were applied as basal fertilizer, tillering fertilizer, and panicle fertilizer, respectively. Calcium–magnesium phosphate was used as the P fertilizer, and potassium chloride was used as the K fertilizer. All of the P fertilizer was applied as basal fertilizer, while half of the K fertilizer was applied as basal fertilizer and the other half as panicle fertilizer. To minimize confounding effects, water management, pest control, and environmental monitoring were standardized across all plots. Each plot was individually irrigated and drained following a controlled flooding–drainage cycle typical of double rice cropping systems, ensuring uniform water availability. Pest and disease control measures were applied uniformly based on standard agricultural guidelines to prevent differential impacts on crop growth and, thus, C inputs.

2.3. Soil Sampling

Surface soil samples (0–15 cm) were collected following the harvest of early rice in 2024. Five cores were taken randomly from each plot using a soil auger with a diameter of 5 cm. The cores were then mixed to create a homogeneous composite sample. The soil samples were air-dried, and visible plant and animal debris, as well as stones, was removed. The air-dried soil sample was thoroughly mixed and divided into two parts: one part for SOC physical fractionation, and the other part passed through a 0.149 mm sieve for total SOC and solid-state 13C NMR analyses. Soil sampling was conducted approximately one year after the most recent lime application in early 2023. This timing was selected to ensure sufficient time for lime-induced changes in soil pH, microbial activity, and SOC fraction distribution to become detectable.

2.4. Soil Physical Fractionation

The physical fractionation was performed following the methods of Zhang et al. [22]. In brief, 10 g of air-dried soil (passed through a 2 mm sieve) was placed into a 50 mL centrifuge tube containing 30 mL of NaI solution (density = 1.85 g cm−3). The tube was gently shaken five times by hand, and 5 mL of NaI solution was used to rinse the centrifuge tube wall. After standing for 30 min, the suspension was centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 1 h. The supernatant was transferred to a 5 μm sieve, and deionized water was used to filter the suspension thoroughly until no white precipitate was observed upon testing with AgNO3, indicating the complete removal of NaI. This fraction was defined as the fPOC fraction. The centrifuge tube was washed twice with 50 mL deionized water, and then 30 mL of 0.5% sodium hexametaphosphate solution was added. The mixture was shaken for 18 h at 180 rpm, and then passed through a 53 μm sieve to obtain the occluded particulate organic carbon (oPOC). The residue was centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 10 min, and the supernatant was discarded to yield the MAOC fraction. All fractions were dried at 50 °C. None of the fractions showed carbonate presence upon testing [23]. The concentration of organic C in bulk soil and various SOC fractions was determined using the potassium dichromate digestion method followed by heating.

2.5. Solid-State 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Analyses

The chemical composition of SOC was analyzed using solid-state 13C NMR spectroscopy. Prior to analysis, air-dried soil samples were first sieved through a 0.149 mm mesh to remove coarse particles and ensure a uniform sample. To improve the spectral resolution, the sieved samples were treated with hydrofluoric acid (HF) to remove paramagnetic minerals, particularly iron and aluminum oxides, which could interfere with the NMR signal. This HF treatment involved repeated washing with 10% HF solution, followed by centrifugation and decantation, and was conducted under controlled conditions to minimize the loss of organic carbon. The treated samples were then dried again before analysis, and 13C solid-state NMR analysis was performed with a Bruker AVANCE 500 MHz superconducting NMR spectrometer. The spectrometer parameters were set as follows: rotor diameter of 4 mm, magic angle spinning frequency of 6 kHz, 13C resonance frequency of 125.8 MHz, sampling time of 0.01 s, contact time of 2 ms, recycle delay of 3 s, and approximately 7000 scans. NMR spectra were processed using TopSpin 4.2 for integration. Each treatment of total SOC was analyzed in triplicate. The resulting spectra were divided into four major functional groups: (1) Alkyl C (δ = 0–45 ppm); (2) O-Alkyl C (δ = 45–110 ppm); (3) Aromatic C (δ = 110–160 ppm); (4) Carbonyl C (δ = 160–220 ppm) [24].

2.6. Carbon Inputs

The plant samples were collected annually from 2015 to 2024 at the maturity stage of both early and late rice crops. In each of the 12 plots, a diagonal five-point sampling method was employed, where 5 rice hills were randomly selected at each point, totaling 25 hills per plot. The samples were dried to a constant weight at 70 °C, and the aboveground and belowground biomasses were measured separately. The dried plant samples were ground and passed through a 0.149 mm standard sieve, and their C content was determined using a multi N/C analyzer (multi N/C 2100, Analytik Jena, Jena, Germany). The straw C input (kg ha−1) was calculated according to the method described by Li [25]:
Straw C input = Dry Straw biomass × C concentration
In our study, for the straw incorporation treatment group, the straw C input included the total of roots, leaves, and stems, while for the straw removal treatment group, only the root component was considered for the straw C input.

2.7. Statistical Analyses

A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine the effects of lime application (−L or +L), straw incorporation (−RS or +RS), and their interaction on C inputs, the concentration and stocks of SOC, and its physical fractions and chemical composition. All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 24.0 (IBM Inc., Armonk, NY, USA).

3. Results

3.1. Carbon Inputs

Overall, compared to the non-limed treatment, lime application increased the straw C input by 7.3% (Figure 1). Straw incorporation enhanced the straw C input by approximately 15-fold compared to the straw removal treatments. A significant interactive effect was observed between lime application and straw retention on the straw C input. Under straw removal, lime application significantly enhanced C inputs by 6.6%. In contrast, under straw retention, lime application elevated the straw C input by 9.7% relative to the non-limed treatment.

3.2. Concentration and Stocks of SOC

Overall, long-term lime application had no significant effect on either the concentration or stocks of SOC in the rice paddy (Table 1). In contrast, long-term straw retention significantly increased the SOC concentration and stocks by 6.9% and 5.4%, respectively. There were no significant interactive effects between lime application and straw retention on either the concentration or stocks of SOC.

3.3. Physical Fractions of SOC

Lime application reduced the concentration of fPOC and MAOC by 60.0% and 5.3%, respectively, while increasing that of oPOC by 17.9% (Table 2). Long-term straw retention enhanced the concentrations of all SOC fractions, with fPOC increasing by 55.0%, oPOC by 40.0%, and MAOC by 8.0%. Significant interactive effects between lime application and straw retention were observed on the oPOC and MAOC concentrations (Figure 2), whereas no interaction was found on the fPOC concentration. Under straw removal conditions, lime application increased the oPOC concentration by 56.6%, while it had no significant effect with straw retention. In contrast, lime application did not significantly alter the MAOC concentration with straw removal, but it decreased it by 9.8% when straw was incorporated.

3.4. Chemical Composition of SOC

Long-term lime application reduced the proportion of Alkyl C by 5.1% (Table 3). The proportions of O-Alkyl C, Aromatic C, and Carbonyl C were not altered by liming. Consequently, the Alkyl C/O-Alkyl C ratio was significantly reduced by 5.8% under lime application. In contrast, long-term straw retention increased the proportion of Alkyl C by 5.1%. A significant interactive effect was observed between lime application and straw retention on the Alkyl C proportion (Figure 3). Under straw removal, lime application reduced the proportion of Alkyl C by 9.5%, while no significant effect was observed under straw retention.

4. Discussion

4.1. SOC Stocks

SOC plays a crucial role in maintaining the productivity and sustainability of paddy fields. It enhances soil fertility by providing essential nutrients, improves the soil structure by increasing aggregate stability, and promotes microbial activity that contributes to nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition [26]. Additionally, SOC increases water retention capacity, which is particularly important in paddy fields where water management is essential for rice production [27]. The results of the present study indicated that long-term lime application had no significant effect on either the concentration or stocks of SOC in the acidic paddy soil. Lime application increased C inputs by alleviating acid stress and promoting crop biomass production (Figure 1). However, its impact on SOC stocks was neutral, likely due to a balance between increased organic inputs and enhanced SOC mineralization. One possible explanation for the enhanced SOC decomposition under liming is the priming effect [28], where increased microbial activity stimulated by liming accelerates the breakdown of native SOC. This effect is often most pronounced under neutral pH conditions, as microbial communities become more active and responsive to fresh organic inputs. Our previous research suggests that liming significantly increased cellulase activity, which facilitates the decomposition of plant-derived organic matter [29]. Since liming increases the soil pH, it could have enhanced microbial-mediated SOC turnover, particularly in paddy soils where plant-derived organic matter serves as the primary C source [20]. The observed trends align with findings in other field studies, where SOC stability is influenced by both pH changes and organic matter availability. Amoakwah et al. [30] reported that long-term combined lime and silicate application significantly reduced soil C stocks through accelerating organic C decomposition and release. In contrast, we did not observe a significant change in SOC stocks under the long-term lime application in the rice paddy. We expected that liming may accelerate SOC mineralization and the turnover of labile C, thereby offsetting the positive effects of increased C inputs [31]. In agreement with many previous studies [32], long-term straw retention promoted both the SOC concentration and stocks in the present paddy field, primarily due to increased C inputs. Therefore, in order to mitigate lime-enhanced C mineralization, it is recommended to apply limes with organic amendments such as straw retention to simultaneously alleviate soil acidity and increase SOC, thereby improving soil fertility [8].

4.2. Physical Fractions of SOC

Our results demonstrated that long-term lime application reduced the concentration of both fPOC and MAOC while increasing that of oPOC in the paddy soil. As stated above, liming can stimulate microbial activity and accelerate the decomposition of the unprotected fPOC [33]. Furthermore, lime application can enhance calcium ion (Ca2+) bridging effects, which may promote the formation and stabilization of soil aggregates, thus shifting part of the fPOC to become occluded and transition into oPOC. Lime-induced aggregation not only facilitates the physical occlusion of SOC within aggregates, but also enhances aggregate stability, thereby improving the physical protection of SOC against microbial decomposition [34]. Consequently, liming reduced the content of fPOC while increasing that of oPOC. Meanwhile, the elevated pH under liming weakened the adsorption and protective capacity of iron and aluminum oxides for organic C, resulting in the release of part of the MAOC, which subsequently transformed into more labile organic C components [35]. In contrast, long-term straw retention increased the contents of all the SOC fractions, because straw incorporation not only directly increases C inputs, but also promotes soil aggregation, thus improving the physical protection for SOC [36].
The interaction between lime application and straw retention indicated that lime application only increased the oPOC concentration under straw removal, but not under straw retention (Figure 2a). Overall, we found that the oPOC concentration increased by 40.0% under straw incorporation compared to under straw removal, with only 17.9% by liming compared to the non-limed treatments (Table 2). Thus, it is possible that straw incorporation provides more C inputs and stronger physical protection than lime application by masking the positive effect of liming on oPOC. As a result, liming only increased the oPOC concentration under straw removal, but had no effect with straw retention.
In contrast, lime application resulted in a significant reduction in the MAOC concentration under straw retention but not under straw removal (Figure 2b). MAOC consists of both plant-derived and microbial-derived C [37]. Under the sole application of lime, the increase in soil pH likely promoted microbial biomass accumulation, thereby enhancing the contribution of microbial-derived C to MAOC [38]. Meanwhile, lime application also enhanced the mineralization of SOC, thus counteracting microbial-derived C accumulation [39]. Therefore, in the absence of additional organic C inputs, lime application exerted limited effects on the total MAOC concentration. In contrast, under straw incorporation, the exogenous organic C input significantly increased, particularly enhancing the contribution of plant-derived C to MAOC. However, the pH increase induced by lime application likely altered the microbial community structure and enzyme activity, accelerating the decomposition of plant-derived organic C from straw and reducing the efficiency of its conversion into stable MAOC [40]. In addition, liming-induced pH changes may alter the solubility and reactivity of Fe and Al oxides, affecting their ability to adsorb and stabilize SOC. A higher pH could weaken mineral–organic associations, potentially increasing SOC turnover and reducing long-term stabilization [41]. As a result, lime application may decrease the accumulation of plant-derived C in MAOC under straw retention, leading to a relative decline in the total MAOC concentration. The present results align with those of previous studies demonstrating that, in the absence of substantial organic C input, lime application alone is insufficient to destabilize the established MAOC pool [42]. The inherent stability of MAOC likely buffers against the potential desorption or transformation of organic C under lime application [43].

4.3. Chemical Composition of SOC

Our results showed that long-term lime application reduced the proportion of Alkyl C and the ratio of Alkyl C to O-Alkyl C in SOC. Alkyl C, primarily derived from waxes, lignin, and other aliphatic compounds, is known for its recalcitrance and is considered a key indicator of SOC stability [44]. This result indicates that lime application may facilitate the decomposition and turnover of more stable SOC components. This process may be attributed to the change in the soil microbial community structure following lime application. Under neutral to slightly alkaline conditions, bacteria dominate the microbial community [45], exhibiting higher decomposition activity and effectively breaking down C sources such as lipids and suberin. Furthermore, lime application enhances the activity of SOC-degrading enzymes, including cellulase and ligninolytic enzymes [46], which accelerate the decomposition and mineralization of Alkyl C. The researchers in [47] also reported that long-term lime application significantly reduced the Alkyl C content and the Alkyl C/O-Alkyl C ratio in acidic dryland soils. They found that, under acidic conditions, the activity of microbial enzymes, particularly cutinases and suberinases, is restricted, thus limiting the decomposition of Alkyl C. Lime application alleviates pH constraints, thereby enhancing enzymatic activity and promoting the selective decomposition of Alkyl C. In contrast, long-term straw retention significantly increased the proportion of Alkyl C in SOC (Table 2). Straw is rich in recalcitrant organic compounds such as lignin, suberin, and cutin [48]. During its decomposition, the microbial selective degradation of different components leads to the gradual enrichment of Alkyl C in SOC [49].
Notably, we found that lime application reduced the Alkyl C content under straw removal, but not under straw retention (Figure 3). Straw retention provides a substantial input of external organic C, which mitigates the negative impact of lime application on Alkyl C. During straw decomposition, lipid, cutin, and suberin compounds are produced and partially replenish the SOC pool through microbial transformation and physical protection by soil aggregation [50]. Moreover, the decomposition of straw in the anaerobic environment of paddy fields produces abundant organic acids, which can neutralize the alkalinity of lime, thereby reducing its effects on Alkyl C [51]. Notably, the solid-state 13C NMR method has certain limitations, including its relatively low spectral resolution, which restricts the differentiation of structurally similar carbon compounds, and its inability to effectively distinguish between microbial- and plant-derived carbon [52].
Overall, our study indicated that long-term lime application did not affect the total SOC stocks, but it significantly altered the SOC quality in the rice paddy. Specifically, long-term lime application reduced the content of MAOC and the proportion of Alkyl C in SOC. Therefore, long-term lime application may lead to a decrease in the stability of SOC in the paddy field, limiting the long-term C sequestration and other ecological functions provided by SOC, such as maintaining the soil structure and biodiversity [53]. However, it should be noted that the present study only inferred the change in SOC stability based on its physical fraction distribution and chemical molecular structure. The gold-standard method to assess SOC stability, however, should be C decomposition experiments through soil incubation [54]. Additionally, while our findings highlight the role of liming in altering MAOC and SOC composition, the underlying microbial mechanisms, such as shifts in the microbial community composition and enzyme activity, remain unclear. Future research should incorporate microbial analyses, SOC incubation studies, and soil aggregation assessments to further elucidate the long-term effects of liming on SOC dynamics [55].

5. Conclusions

Based on a 10-year field experiment, the present study demonstrated that despite the total SOC stocks not being altered, lime application increased the content of oPOC and decreased that of fPOC and MAOC in the acidic paddy soil. Furthermore, lime application reduced the relative content of Alkyl C in the SOC. Thus, long-term liming may lead to a decline in stable C pools, posing a potential risk to long-term C storage and the stability of SOC. In contrast, straw retention enhanced the content of fPOC, oPOC, MAOC, and Alkyl C. Therefore, when alleviating soil acidity through lime application in rice paddies, the adoption of organic amendments is recommended, such as cover crops, straw retention, or manure addition, to maintain soil fertility and functioning in the long term.

Author Contributions

Y.Z. (Yuxiang Zhang) and Z.W.: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, formal analysis, writing—original draft; Y.Z. (Yongjun Zeng): supervision, verification, writing—review and editing; Y.S. and S.H.: project administration, funding acquisition, supervision, resources, writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32260547) and Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Crop Bio-breeding and High-Efficient Production (2024SSY04101).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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Agriculture 15 00650 g001
Figure 1. Effect of liming (L) and straw retention (RS) on mean annual carbon (C) inputs from 2015 to 2024. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among different treatments at p ≤ 0.05. The error bar represents the standard deviation (n = 10).
Figure 1. Effect of liming (L) and straw retention (RS) on mean annual carbon (C) inputs from 2015 to 2024. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among different treatments at p ≤ 0.05. The error bar represents the standard deviation (n = 10).
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Figure 2. Interactive effects of lime application (L) and straw retention (RS) on the concentration of occluded particulate organic carbon (oPOC) (a) and mineral-associated organic carbon (MAOC) (b). Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among treatments at p ≤ 0.05. The error bar represents the standard deviation (n = 3).
Figure 2. Interactive effects of lime application (L) and straw retention (RS) on the concentration of occluded particulate organic carbon (oPOC) (a) and mineral-associated organic carbon (MAOC) (b). Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among treatments at p ≤ 0.05. The error bar represents the standard deviation (n = 3).
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Figure 3. Interactive effects of lime application (L) and straw retention (RS) on the proportion of Alkyl C in SOC. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among different treatments at p ≤ 0.05. The error bar represents the standard deviation (n = 3).
Figure 3. Interactive effects of lime application (L) and straw retention (RS) on the proportion of Alkyl C in SOC. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among different treatments at p ≤ 0.05. The error bar represents the standard deviation (n = 3).
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Table 1. Effects of long-term liming (L) and straw retention (RS) on the concentration and stocks of soil organic carbon.
Table 1. Effects of long-term liming (L) and straw retention (RS) on the concentration and stocks of soil organic carbon.
Source of VariationsSoil Organic Carbon Concentration
(g kg−1)		Soil Organic Carbon Stocks
(t ha−1)
Liming (L)
−L13.4 a24.4 a
+L13.7 a24.9 a
Straw retention (RS)
−RS13.1 b24.0 b
+RS14.0 a25.3 a
F-values
L0.940.79
RS7.90 *6.36 *
L × RS1.370.11
* indicates significant effects of treatments at p ≤ 0.05. Different lowercase letters in the same column indicate significance of the main effects of liming or straw retention (p ≤ 0.05).
Table 2. Effects of long-term liming (L) and straw retention (RS) on the concentration of soil organic carbon fractions.
Table 2. Effects of long-term liming (L) and straw retention (RS) on the concentration of soil organic carbon fractions.
Source of VariationsFree Particulate Organic Carbon
(g kg−1)		Occluded Particulate Organic Carbon
(g kg−1)		Mineral-Associated Organic Carbon
(g kg−1)
Liming (L)
−L0.3 a2.8 b9.4 a
+L0.1 b3.3 a8.9 b
Straw retention (RS)
−RS0.2 b2.5 b8.8 b
+RS0.3 a3.5 a9.5 a
F-values
L66.07 **28.58 **7.72 *
RS34.65 **94.11 **17.37 **
L × RS2.0329.21 **10.04 **
* and ** indicate significant effects of treatments at 0.01 < p ≤ 0.05 and p ≤ 0.01, respectively. Different lowercase letters in the same column indicate significance of main effects of liming or straw retention at p ≤ 0.05.
Table 3. Effects of long-term liming (L) and straw retention (RS) on the chemical composition of soil organic carbon.
Table 3. Effects of long-term liming (L) and straw retention (RS) on the chemical composition of soil organic carbon.
Source of VariationsAlkyl C (%)O-Alkyl C (%)Aromatic C (%)Carbonyl C (%)Alkyl C/O-Alkyl C (%)
Liming (L)
−L26.73 a45.31 a16.27 a11.57 a58.99 a
+L25.36 b46.25 a16.82 a12.39 a54.83 b
Straw retention (RS)
−RS25.40 b45.85 a16.64 a12.04 a55.40 a
+RS26.69 a45.70 a16.46 a11.93 a58.40 a
F-values
L16.85 **3.020.994.9014.18 **
RS14.95 **0.070.100.096.78 *
L × RS11.34 *0.063.100.085.37
* and ** indicate significant differences at the 0.01 < p ≤ 0.05 and p ≤ 0.01 levels, respectively. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences under different treatments (p ≤ 0.05).
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Zhang, Y.; Wang, Z.; Sun, Y.; Zeng, Y.; Huang, S. Long-Term Effect of Lime Application on Quantity and Quality of Soil Organic Carbon in Double Rice Cropping System. Agriculture 2025, 15, 650. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15060650

AMA Style

Zhang Y, Wang Z, Sun Y, Zeng Y, Huang S. Long-Term Effect of Lime Application on Quantity and Quality of Soil Organic Carbon in Double Rice Cropping System. Agriculture. 2025; 15(6):650. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15060650

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Yuxiang, Zhigang Wang, Yanni Sun, Yongjun Zeng, and Shan Huang. 2025. "Long-Term Effect of Lime Application on Quantity and Quality of Soil Organic Carbon in Double Rice Cropping System" Agriculture 15, no. 6: 650. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15060650

APA Style

Zhang, Y., Wang, Z., Sun, Y., Zeng, Y., & Huang, S. (2025). Long-Term Effect of Lime Application on Quantity and Quality of Soil Organic Carbon in Double Rice Cropping System. Agriculture, 15(6), 650. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15060650

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