Next Article in Journal
Agri-Food Supply and Retail Food Prices during the Russia–Ukraine Conflict’s Early Stage: Implications for Food Security
Previous Article in Journal
Mixed Silage of Banana Pseudostem and Maize Stover on Ethiopian Smallholder Farms: Effect of Fermentation Package and Location on Microbiological and Nutritional Evaluation
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Agriculture
Volume 13
Issue 11
10.3390/agriculture13112153
agriculture-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Influence of Ozonation Carried Out during Vegetation on the Content of Selected Bioactive Phytochemicals and the Microbiological Load of Tubers of Raphanus sativus var. sativus

by
Miłosz Zardzewiały
1,*,
Natalia Matłok
1,
Tomasz Piechowiak
2 and
Maciej Balawejder
2
1
Department of Food and Agriculture Production Engineering, University of Rzeszow, 4 Zelwerowicza Street, 35-601 Rzeszów, Poland
2
Department of Chemistry and Food Toxicology, University of Rzeszow, 1a Ćwiklińskiej Street, 35-601 Rzeszów, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2023, 13(11), 2153; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13112153
Submission received: 16 October 2023 / Revised: 9 November 2023 / Accepted: 14 November 2023 / Published: 15 November 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Product Quality and Safety)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The aim of the study was to determine the effect of ozone gas fumigation on the mechanical, chemical, and microbiological parameters of radish tubers. Radish plants were grown in the ground in accordance with the principles of good agricultural practice and condition suitable for the soil and climatic conditions of south-eastern Poland. At the end of the growing season, 24 h before harvest, radish plants were exposed to a variable factor, i.e., fumigation with ozone gas at various doses (1 ppm for 1 and 5 min; 5 ppm for 1 and 5 min) in order to modify selected metabolic pathways of bioactive compounds. Then, 24 h after ozonation, radish tubers were harvested and placed in a climatic chamber with controlled conditions, i.e., 2 °C and 90% humidity. Laboratory analyses were performed during storage on days 1, 5, and 10. The ozonation used did not significantly improve the mechanical properties and water content of radish tubers. There was a beneficial effect of selected gaseous ozone doses (1 ppm for 1 and 5 min; 5 ppm for 1 min on the 10th day of storage) on the biosynthesis of selected bioactive compounds, i.e., ascorbic acid content, total polyphenol content, and antioxidant potential during storage. The most beneficial effects of the use of gaseous ozone were observed in the storage process in reducing the microbiological load of radish tubers. Among the ozonation doses used, the dose of 5 ppm for 5 min had the most beneficial effect on reducing the microbiological load. It reduced the number of yeasts and molds by 14.2% and aerobic mesophilic bacteria by 20.9% compared to the control sample on the last day of storage. Additionally, between the 5th and 10th day of storage, a significant effect of each ozone dose applied on reducing the occurrence of yeasts, molds, and mesophilic aerobic bacteria during tuber storage was noted.

1. Introduction

Radish (Raphanus sativus L.) is a plant from the Mediterranean region [1]; it belongs to the Brassicaceae family [2], just like cauliflower, oil radish, and cabbage. Mature plants have a small size, tuberous roots, and green leaves [3]. Raphanus sativus (R. sativus) tubers have culinary and medicinal uses. They are eaten raw or after heat treatment. Usually, raw radishes are used as an addition to many dishes [4]. Worldwide production of radish is approximately 7 million tons per year [5]. Japan is one of the largest radish producers in the world [6,7]. Radish cultivation depends largely on soil and climatic conditions suitable for optimal growth and development [8].
Raphanus sativus plants contain large amounts of saponins, flavonoids, polyphenols, glycosides, essential oils, vitamin A, and vitamin C. Due to their rich chemical composition and numerous related properties, these plants have been widely used in medicine [9]. Radish has a number of scientifically proven health-promoting properties. Raphanus sativus juice is used to treat coughs, rheumatic arthritis, and gallstones. Moreover, it has a diuretic effect [10]. In Arabic and Indian folk medicine, R. sativus was used to treat many diseases, such as jaundice, gallstones, liver diseases, indigestion, and stomach pain. The leaves, which are usually discarded, have strong antioxidant properties because they contain 10 times more vitamin C than the tubers [11]. In addition, the leaves and tubers have been used to treat infections with intestinal parasites. The properties of the tubers are responsible for antiscorbutic, antispasmodic, choleretic, and digestive properties. This plant contains raphanin, which has bactericidal and antifungal properties. It inhibits the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, and streptococci. R. sativus is rich in antioxidants and minerals, such as calcium and potassium. However, raphanin is found in the internal tissues of the plant and, therefore, its effect on the plant surface is weakened [12]. These ingredients help lower high blood pressure and reduce the risk of heart disease. Additionally, R. sativus contains a large quantity of glucose–nolates–sulfur compounds that protect cells against mutations that cause cancer [13,14].
Plant production depends primarily on soil and climatic conditions and the agrotechnical treatments used. In order to obtain good quality raw material, constant conditions must be maintained during the vegetation process [15]. Moreover, there are many biotic and abiotic factors that influence plant raw materials [16]. Abiotic factors include ozone, which is called an elicitor [17]. Ozonation is a process that has a positive effect on reducing water losses in stored plant raw materials. Moreover, in the case of climacteric fruits, it reduces ethylene release [18,19,20]. The use of gaseous ozone in a controlled manner induces the plant defense reaction, and in response leads to increased production of bioactive compounds [21]. Ozone, through its oxidizing properties, disinfects the plant raw material, thus, extending its storage life [22]. Another method of improving the quality of plant raw materials is ultraviolet radiation (UV-C). The use of UV-C before harvesting strawberries is treated as an innovative method that leads to an increase in the content of bioactive compounds and resistance to diseases [23]. Moreover, ultraviolet radiation (UV-C) induces defense responses to pathogens in plant crops and is considered a method of disease control that does not pollute the natural environment [24].
As a result of damage caused during harvesting and processing of vegetables, pathogenic microorganisms penetrate inside them, causing putrefactive processes. Losses during storage of vegetables can be reduced by using chemical fungicides, but fungal populations often become resistant to such substances, which limits their effectiveness [25]. Moreover, concerns about the impact of their use residues on human health force the search for alternatives [26]. Taking into account consumer safety and the natural environment, one of the most effective technologies that has already been used in the food industry is ozonation. Moreover, ozone is already used to disinfect water in municipal pipelines, bottled water, sewage, hospitals, aquariums, and equipment used in aquaculture. [27]. In addition, ozone gas is used as an air disinfectant [28]. Ozone in the form of gas or dissolved in water is an antimicrobial agent in the post-harvest treatment of fruits and vegetables [29]. The main purpose of the use of ozone after harvesting vegetables is to inactivate the growth of bacteria [30], prevent fungal decomposition [31], reduce ethylene concentration during fruit storage [32], and destroy pesticides and chemical residues [33]. Ozonation is considered a non-thermal method of food preservation that does not pollute the environment and does not deteriorate its quality parameters [34]. Ozone gas used in low parts of the atmosphere does not pollute the air because it decomposes spontaneously. The effect of air pollution with ozone gas is significant during ozone generation as a result of photochemical smog [35].
Additionally, it has also been shown that ozonation can affect the mechanical properties of plant material [36].
The aim of the study was to determine the possibility of using ozonation to improve the quality of radish tubers grown in the ground, including intensification of the biosynthesis of selected bioactive compounds and mechanical and microbiological properties.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Materials and Growth Conditions

2.1.1. Plant Materials in a Field Experiment

In the field experiment, the radish variety Saxa 2 (Raphanus sativus) was used for research. It is an early variety, and less than a month passes from sowing the seeds to harvesting. It is recommended for growing in the ground and under cover and is perfect for growing in early spring and autumn.
The field experiment was assumed for the following five variants:
-
Control—no variable factors were used.
For the remaining variants, fumigation with ozone gas was carried out in the following doses:
-
1 ppm for 1 min.
-
1 ppm for 5 min.
-
5 ppm for 1 min.
-
5 ppm for 5 min.

2.1.2. Growth Conditions

In the experiment, the forecrop for radish was tomato. In autumn, pH was determined based on a soil sample. It was at a level appropriate for growing this vegetable and amounted to 6.5. Soil analysis showed that the soil’s nutrient content was sufficient for growing radish. Plowing was carried out in late autumn, and pre-sowing cultivation was performed in early spring. At the beginning of April, radishes were sown at a depth of 1 cm in rows spaced 20 cm apart. The seeds were sown quite densely, in rows every 3 cm, using a manual precision vegetable seeder. After emergence, the seedlings were interrupted at the second leaf stage. At the end of the growing season, ozonation of plants in the ground was carried out in accordance with the methodology. The tubers were harvested 24 h after the fumigation treatment. The experiment was conducted in south-eastern Poland, Podkarpackie Voivodeship. The soil and climatic conditions at the place where the experiment was conducted (geographic coordinates: 50.03 N, 22.36 E) were suitable for growing radish. The soil and climatic conditions were the same for each variant of the experiment.

2.2. Ozonation of Radish Plants

The research work was preceded by an experimental determination of the plant tolerance threshold for ozonation treatment. For this purpose, plants of the same variety from other batches were exposed to ozone at concentrations of 1, 2, 5, and 10 ppm for 1, 3, 5, and 10 min. Based on preliminary tests, the doses of ozone used in field radish cultivation conditions were selected. A cover (dimensions: 1.2 m length, 0.5 m width, 0.4 m height) was placed over the rows of plants in the form of a foil tent adapted for growing low vegetables. A hose from the Korona L5 ozone generator (Scientific and Implementation Laboratory “Korona” Piotrków Trybunalski, Poland) was connected to the foil tunnel using flexible connections. In the fumigation process of radish plants, the concentration of ozone gas was measured with a 106 M 2B Technologies (Broomfield, CO, USA) ozone detector in the measurement range of 0–1000 ppm (Figure 1). The experiment for each variant was carried out in three independent repetitions. Ozonation was performed once, 24 h before harvesting the tubers. Then, after the fumigation process, the foil tunnels were removed from the plant rows. The next stage was the collection of radish tubers and placing them in conditions appropriate for their storage, i.e., at a temperature of 2 °C and 90% humidity for 10 days.

2.3. Mechanical Properties—Compression Test

The tests for the resistance of radish tuber tissues to mechanical damage in the process of uniaxial compression included oval samples. The tests were carried out on fresh samples of similar size and material exposed to various doses of ozone and stored for 10 days. Measurements were performed in 36 repetitions for each experimental variant. The process of uniaxial compression of the tails was carried out on a Zwick/Roell Z010 testing machine, with the following operating parameters: initial force when compressing the sample F = 0.5 N, module speed during the compression test 0.5 mm∙s−1.

2.4. Measurement of Water Content

Measurements of the water content of fresh radish tubers and on the 10th day of storage were carried out using a laboratory dryer (SLW 115 SMART). Material samples (cut tubers) were dried at 105 °C until dry mass was obtained. The drying process lasted 18 h.

2.5. Antioxidant Potential, Polyphenol Content, and Vitamin C

The antioxidant potential was determined by the 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) acid method, and the total polyphenol content was determined by the method described by Matłok et al. [37]. Vitamin C was determined using the titration method in accordance with the methodology presented by Matłok et al. [38].

2.6. Microbiological Analyses

Radish tubers were collected for microbiological tests on the 1st, 5th, and 10th day of storage. The numbers of mesophilic aerobic bacteria, mesophilic lactic acid bacteria, and yeasts and molds were determined according to the methodology described in the Supplementary Materials’ (File S1) microbiological analyses [39].

2.7. Statistical Analysis

In order to check the significance of the effect of ozone gas on the mechanical, chemical, and microbiological parameters of radish tubers during storage, analysis of variance was used for each measurement with a significance level of α = 0.05. These analyses were performed using STATISTICA 13.1 (TIBCO Software Inc., Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, CA, USA).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Measurement of Water Content during Storage

The test results (Figure 2) of radish samples treated with ozone gas and samples not subjected to such treatment and stored in identical conditions (2 °C, 90% humidity) show the effect of the ozone dose on mass loss. The greatest weight loss of the control sample compared to the ozonated variants was observed 24 h after ozonation (water content measurement performed immediately after harvest). Ozonated tubers had a higher water content by approximately 2% compared to the control sample. The difference is statistically insignificant. On the fifth day of storage (120 h), ozonated tubers had a higher water content by approximately 0.5% compared to the control. However, on day 10 (240 h), insignificant differences were observed in the water content in radish tubers of all tested variants.
Reducing water losses in stored plant materials has also been reported in other studies. In the case of rhubarb [22] and cucumbers [40], a similar relationship was observed as a result of the use of ozone gas. The results of the study report that the use of ozone dissolved in water reduces the decrease in the fresh weight of artichoke heads compared to the control sample [41]. Other research results indicate that ozonation of fennel reduces its weight loss by as much as 47% compared to control during 20 days of storage [42]. Ozone gas with a concentration of 10 ppm applied to green asparagus had a significant impact on reducing weight loss during 30 days of storage of the tested raw materials [43].

3.2. Measurement of Mechanical Properties

The average values of the destructive force in the process of uniaxial compression of radish tubers after the application of ozone at various combinations of dose and exposure time, compared to the control, are shown in Figure 3. For each of the experimental variants, a decrease in the value of the destructive force was observed during the storage period. The largest decreases in destructive force during storage of radish tubers were recorded for the control. In the case of ozonated variants, regardless of the ozone dose, slight decreases in destructive power were observed during 120 h (5 days) of storage. On the fifth day of storage (120 h), the highest average value of the destructive force of 251.8 N was recorded for an ozone dose of 5 ppm for 5 min and was 8% higher than the control. In the last 10 days (240 h) of storage, the plants of the 5 ppm for 1 min (156.33 N) variant had the lowest destructive force, and the tubers ozonated with a dose of 1 ppm for 1 min (220.4 N) had the highest value.
In the case of sea buckthorn fruit, an appropriately selected dose of ozone (10 ppm for 15 min) increased the fruit’s resistance to mechanical damage. The use of a shorter ozonation time did not significantly affect the values of the destructive force of the tested raw materials [34]. Horvitz and Cantalejo [44] tested red paprika. They found that the hardness of non-ozonated paprika was lower after 14 days of storage.

3.3. Ascorbic Acid Content, Antioxidant Activity, and Total Phenolic Content

The content of ascorbic acid for each ozone dose tested decreased significantly after 24 h of storage. On the fifth day (120 h) after the ozone fumigation treatment, it was observed that for the ozone doses of 1 ppm for 1 min, 5 ppm for 1 min and 5 ppm for 5 min, an increase in vitamin C content was observed compared to the control. Only for a dose of 1 ppm for 5 min did the ascorbic acid content decrease within this period. On the 10th day of storage, a significant increase in vitamin C concentration was recorded in radish tubers for the ozone dose of 1 ppm for 1 min, 1 ppm for 5 min, and 5 ppm for 1 min compared to the control. For an ozone dose of 5 ppm for 5 min, no beneficial effect of this ozone gas on the vitamin C content in radish tubers was observed (Figure 4).
The process of using ozone gas at low concentrations can increase the ability of fruits or vegetables to synthesize vitamin C. Ozone can also slow down the decline in vitamin C content. The use of ozone gas at concentrations that are too high for a given type of plant raw materials can destroy antioxidant systems, and this also may contribute to the oxidation of vitamin C. Gaseous ozone with low concentrations of 1–6 ppm applied for 15 min significantly increased the content of ascorbic acid in garlic during storage compared to the control sample [45]. Research on artichoke heads after ozonation showed that the vitamin C content in the tested raw material decreased. The observed decrease in ascorbic acid content during cold storage of artichoke heads may be caused by the conversion of ascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic acid (DHAA), which is one of the main mechanisms of detoxification of harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) [41]. Ascorbic acid is undoubtedly one of the most important antioxidants found in fresh vegetables. Research has shown that the total content of ascorbic acid in parsley and lettuce as a result of the use of ozone gas during storage has a decreasing tendency compared to the control sample [46]. In the case of studies on the effect of ozone gas on the vitamin C content in avocado fruits, significant changes in the concentration of the tested vitamin were noted depending on the ozone dose. Up to the 21st day of storage of the tested fruits, no significant effect of ozone gas on the content of the tested vitamin was observed. However, on day 28, a significant effect of the applied ozone doses on the vitamin C content in the tested fruits was noted compared to the control [47].
The present study showed that selected ozone doses combined with the storage period significantly influenced the antioxidant activity of radish tubers (Figure 5A,B). The most beneficial effect was observed on the 10th day of storage after the ozone fumigation treatment for all ozone doses used. The antioxidant activity of radish tubers detected on that day increased by 7.1–48.2% compared to the control sample, depending on the measurement method used.
The research results indicate that the use of ozone gas under controlled conditions can increase the antioxidant capacity of fruits and vegetables. A good example is seen with pitaya fruits, for which an increase in antioxidant capacity was noted, and their antioxidant activity reached the maximum value after 2 days of storage after the use of ozone gas at concentrations of 2, 4, and 6 mg L–1 for 20 min [48]. Further examples of the beneficial effect of ozone gas on antioxidant activity are pineapple [49], tomatoes [50], blackberries, [51] or kiwi [52]. In the case of these studies, an improvement in the quality parameters of the tested raw materials was noted, as exemplified by the increased antioxidant activity of the tested fruits. In the case of vegetables, increased antioxidant activity was also noted as a result of the use of gaseous ozone. Studies of several artichoke varieties showed that the antioxidant activity of samples stored in an ozone atmosphere was higher than the control sample. The results showed that the tested varieties were able to control the resulting oxidative damage caused by ozone exposure [53].
A similar relationship as for antioxidant activity was found in the case of the total content of polyphenols in radish tubers (Figure 6). After fumigation with the tested ozone doses, this parameter decreased after 24 h (1 day) and 120 h (5 days) of storage compared to the control. However, on the 10th day of storage, the tested index increased by an average of 48.72% for the tested ozonated variants compared to the control.
The ozonation process carried out under controlled conditions has a positive effect on the overall content of polyphenols, as exemplified by numerous scientific research results. Balawejder et al. [54] studied the effect of gaseous and water ozone on the content of polyphenols in apples. They found that the ozonation process carried out for 1 to 30 min had a positive effect on the tested parameter. Vettraino et al. [55] studied the effect of ozone gas on chestnut fruits. They found that after 90 days of chestnut storage, the polyphenol content in the ozonated variants was 40% higher than in the control sample. The research results prove that the stress factor ozone can activate the synthesis of polyphenols as a defense response. Scientists’ research on the effect of ozone on artichoke heads has shown that the stress caused by the use of this gas has a positive effect on the overall content of polyphenols. The use of ozonated water and subsequent storage of vegetables in an ozone atmosphere significantly affect the concentration of polyphenols depending on the variety. The beneficial effect of ozone is also noticeable on the seventh day of storage of the tested raw material, taking into account the polyphenol content [41]. Glowacz et al. [56] report that differences in the content of polyphenols at different doses of ozone gas can be explained by increased phenylalanine ammonia lyase activity or decreased polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase activity.
Gaseous ozone penetrates the plants through gas exchange and dissolves in the water solutions available inside, generating various types of reactive oxygen species. The living organism activates defense mechanisms, which causes increased biosynthesis of polyphenols. In many cases, an increase in the content of other small molecular antioxidants was also observed during short-term exposure to relatively high concentrations of ozone [57].
In order to determine the impact of ozone gas fumigation on the microbiological quality of radish tubers, microbiological analyses were performed during their storage.
In the case of aerobic mesophilic bacteria, their fastest development in the stored raw material was recorded for the control sample (Figure 7). For the ozonated variants, an increase in the tested bacteria was also observed during storage, but it was significantly smaller during 10 days of storage, comparing the results of the tests on the ozonated variants and the control sample. The ozone dose of 5 ppm for 5 min had the most beneficial effect on the reduction in mesophilic aerobic bacteria, regardless of the test date. On the 10th day of storage, this dose reduced the number of tested bacteria by 20.9% compared to the control variant.
The beneficial effects of the ozonation process were also observed in the reduction in the number of yeasts and molds in the stored raw materials. On the first day of storage of the raw materials, there was no beneficial effect from the dose of 1 ppm per minute and 5 ppm per minute on reducing the number of yeasts and molds in the tested raw materials compared to the control sample. On day 5 (120 h), for the ozone doses used, in addition to the dose of 1 ppm for 1 min, a beneficial effect of gaseous ozone fumigation on the reduction in the burden of yeasts and molds was observed. In turn, the ozone dose of 5 ppm for 5 min during radish storage had the most beneficial effect on the reduction in yeasts and molds. On the last day of storage, this dose reduced the tested microbiological load by 14.2% compared to the control sample.
Ozone (O3), being a strong oxidizing agent [58], is used in the food industry due to its numerous advantages, in particular fighting microorganisms [59] and reducing mycotoxin contamination of plant raw materials [60]. Additionally, the use of ozone guarantees the absence of any residues in the material subjected to this process [61]. Moreover, ozone fumigation reduces the number of Gram-positive and -negative bacteria, as well as their spores [62,63]. There are a number of scientific reports in the literature that ozone reduces the number of mesophilic aerobic bacteria during storage of asparagus [43], rhubarb [22], marjoram [39], groats corn [64], or date palm fruit [65]. Moreover, ozone gas reduces the number of yeasts and molds on strawberry fruit [66,67], citrus fruits [68], dried figs [69], and berries [70].
Similarly to fruit, there have been numerous reports on the beneficial effect of ozonation on the microbiological load of vegetables. Ölmez and Akbas [71] reported that the use of ozonated water at a concentration of 2 ppm for 2 min was the optimal condition for disinfection of green leaf lettuce, taking into account the reduction in the microbiological load during cold storage.
Other studies on the microbiological load report that the average number of yeasts, molds, and aerobic bacteria in the tested cultivars of globe artichoke from the C3 Violet de Provence and Romanesco clones was reduced as a result of the ozonation process. For 7 days of storage, a beneficial effect of ozonation on the reduction in the tested microorganisms responsible for storage losses was noted [72]. In their study, Liew and Prange [73] reported that ozonation of carrots at a concentration of 60 ppm reduced the microbiological load of Sclerotinia sclerotinia by 50%. Storing carrots in an ozone atmosphere with a concentration of 15 ppm reduces the microbiological load without negatively affecting the physical properties of carrots.
The results of tests on the microbiological load of radish tubers resulting from the use of gaseous ozone correspond to the results of other studies in which gaseous ozone reduced the concentration of microorganisms by approximately 2 log.cfu−1 [74,75,76].

4. Conclusions

The paper describes the impact of the ozonation process carried out before harvesting radish tubers on their quality during 10 days of storage. Mechanical properties, content of selected bioactive compounds, and microbiological load were tested. The research shows that the use of gaseous ozone reduces the microbiological load and does not have a statistically significant effect on water loss and mechanical properties. Moreover, tests showed an increased vitamin C content after applying ozone at a dose of 5 ppm for 1 min on the 10th day of storage. In the tested raw material, the antioxidant activity and polyphenol content were higher after each ozone dose compared to the control sample on the 10th day of storage. The research results show that ozonation can be effectively used to improve the parameters determining the quality of radish tubers and to extend the shelf life of this raw material.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agriculture13112153/s1, File S1: Mikrobiological analyzes.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, visualization, and writing—original draft preparation, M.Z.; visualization and investigation, N.M.; methodology, T.P.; conceptualization, methodology, and review and editing, M.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The project is financed by the program of the Minister of Education and Science named “Regional Initiative of Excellence” in the years 2019–2023, project number 026/RID/2018/19, the amount of financing PLN 9,542,500.00.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available in this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Rodrigues, R.R.; Pizetta, S.C.; Teixeira, A.G.; Reis, E.F.; Hott, M.O. Produção de rabanete em diferentes disponibilidades de água no solo. Enciclopédia Biosf. 2013, 9, 2121–2130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Saha, S.; Paul, S.A.; Afroz, A.; Dey, A.; Chatterjee, A.; Khanra, R. Raphanus sativus—A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology. Asian J. Pharm. Clin. Res. 2023, 16, 7–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Jorgeana, A.; Sobrinho, O.; Cantanhede, E.; Schalcher, A.; Silva, V.; Santos, L. Agronomic performance of Raphanus sativus L. cultivars grown under different spacings. Rev. Cienc. Agrícolas 2020, 37, 19–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Banihani, S.A. Radish (Raphanus sativus) and Diabetes. Nutrients 2017, 9, 1014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Husnain, R.T.; Amjad, H.; Ziaf, K.; Sahi, S.T. Planting geometry effects on seed yield and quality of two radish cultivars. Pak. J. Agric. Sci. 2020, 57, 637–643. [Google Scholar]
  6. Linhares, P.C.F.; Pereira, M.F.S.; Oliveira, B.S.; Henriques, G.P.S.A.; Maracajá, P.B. Produtividade de rabanete em sistema orgânico de produção. Rev. Verde Agroecol. Desenvolv. Sustent. 2010, 5, 94–101. [Google Scholar]
  7. Ito, H.; Horie, A.A. Chromatographic method for separating and identifying intact 4-methylthio-3-butenyl glucosinolate in Japanese radish (Raphanus sativus L.). Jpn. Agric. Res. Q. 2008, 42, 109–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Poudel, K.; Karki, S.; Sah Teli, M.; Mandal, J. Evaluation of radish (Raphanus sativus L.) genotypes in Eastern mid-hills condition of Nepal. World News Nat. Sci. 2018, 19, 155–159. [Google Scholar]
  9. Raphanus sativus (Cultivated R. sativus): Go Botany. Native Plant Trust. Available online: https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/raphanus/sativus (accessed on 10 October 2023).
  10. Raphanus sativus; n.d. Useful Tropical Plants. Available online: https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Raphanus+sativus (accessed on 10 October 2023).
  11. Pan, L.; Gao, J.; Han, Y.; Shi, Y.; Tang, X.; Pu, L.; Lai, X.; Dongzhu, R.; Zhang, J.; Xiangmao, Q.; et al. The Treatment of Cholecystitis and Cholelithiasis by Tibetan Medicine. Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2021, 30, 9502609. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Gutiérrez, R.M.; Perez, R.L. Raphanus sativus (Radish): Their chemistry and biology. Sci. World J. 2004, 13, 811–837. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Gamba, M.; Asllanaj, E.; Raguindin, P.F.; Glisic, M.; Franco, O.H.; Minder, B. Nutritional and phytochemical characterization of radish (Raphanus sativus): A systematic review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2021, 113, 205–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Barillari, J.; Iori, R.; Papi, A.; Orlandi, M.; Bartolini, G.; Gabbanini, S. Kaiware Daikon (Raphanus sativus L.) extract: A naturally multipotent chemopreventive agent. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 7823–7830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Głodowska, M.; Gałązka, A. Unsustainable agriculture and its environmental consequences. Zesz. Probl. Postępów Nauk. Rol. 2018, 592, 3–13. [Google Scholar]
  16. Tandzi, L.; Mutengwa, C. Factors Affecting Yield of Crops. Agron. Clim. Chang. Food Secur. 2020, 3–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Piechowiak, T.; Antos, P.; Kosowski, P.; Skrobacz, K.; Józefczyk, R.; Balawejder, M. Impact of ozonation process on the microbiological and antioxidant status of raspberry (Rubus ideaeus L.) fruit during storage at room temperature. Agric. Food Sci. 2019, 28, 35–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Contigiani, E.V.; Jaramillo-Sánchez, G.; Castro, M.A.; Gómez, P.L.; Alzamora, S.M. Postharvest Quality of Strawberry Fruit (Fragaria x Ananassa Duch cv. Albion) as Affected by Ozone Washing: Fungal Spoilage, Mechanical Properties, and Structure. Food Bioprocess. Technol. 2018, 11, 1639–1650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Jaramillo-Sánchez, G.; Contigiani, E.V.; Castro, M.; Hodara, K.; Alzamora, S.; Loredo, A.; Nieto, A. Freshness maintenance of blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) during postharvest using ozone in aqueous phase: Microbiological, structure, and mechanical issues. Food Bioprocess. Technol. 2019, 12, 2136–2147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Lv, Y.; Tahir, I.I.; Olsson, M.E. Effect of ozone application on bioactive compounds of apple fruit during short-term cold storage. Sci. Hortic. 2019, 253, 49–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Guidi, L.; Degl’Innocenti, E.; Soldatini, G.F. Assimilation of CO2, enzyme activation and photosynthetic electron transport in bean leaves, as affected by high light and ozone. New Phytol. 2002, 156, 377–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Zardzewiały, M.; Matlok, N.; Piechowiak, T.; Gorzelany, J.; Balawejder, M. Ozone Treatment as a Process of Quality Improvement Method of Rhubarb (Rheum. rhaponticum L.) Petioles during Storage. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 8282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Xu, Y.; Charles, M.T.; Luo, Z.; Mimee, B.; Veronneau, P.Y.; Rolland, D.; Roussel, D. Preharvest Ultraviolet C Irradiation Increased the Level of Polyphenol Accumulation and Flavonoid Pathway Gene Expression in Strawberry Fruit. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2017, 65, 9970–9979. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Xu, Y.; Charles, M.T.; Luo, Z.; Mimee, B.; Tong, Z.; Véronneau, P.Y.; Roussel, D.; Rolland, D. Ultraviolet-C priming of strawberry leaves against subsequent Mycosphaerella fragariae infection involves the action of reactive oxygen species, plant hormones, and terpenes. Plant Cell Environ. 2019, 42, 815–831. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Sànchez-Ballesta, M.T.; Zacarias, L.; Granell, A.; Lafuente, M.T. Accumulation of PAL transcript and PAL activity as affected by heat-conditioning and low temperature storage and its relation to chilling sensitivity inmandarin fruits. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2000, 48, 2726–2731. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Restuccia, C.; Giusino, F.; Licciardello, F.; Randazzo, C.; Caggia, C.; Muratore, G. Biological control of peach fungal pathogens by commercial products and indigenous yeasts. J. Food Prot. 2006, 69, 2465–2470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Zhang, L.; Lu, Z.; Yu, Z.; Gao, X. Preservation of fresh-cut celery by treatment of ozonated water. Food Control 2005, 16, 279–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Grignani, E.; Mansi, A.; Cabella, R.; Castellano, P.; Tirabasso, A.; Sisto, R.; Spagnoli, M.; Fabrizi, G.; Frigerio, F.; Tranfo, G. Safe and Effective Use of Ozone as Air and Surface Disinfectant in the Conjuncture of COVID-19. Gases 2021, 1, 19–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Ozkan, R.; Smilanick, J.L.; Karabulut, O.A. Toxicity of ozone gas to conidia of Penicillium digitatum, Penicillium italicum and Botyris cinerea and control of gray mold on table grapes. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2011, 60, 47–51. [Google Scholar]
  30. Sharma, R.R.; Demirci, A.; Beuchat, L.R.; Fett, W.F. Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on inoculated alfalfa seeds with ozonated water and heat treatment. J. Food Prot. 2002, 65, 447–451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Palou, L.; Crisoto, C.H.; Smilanick, J.L.; Adaskaveg, J.E.; Zoffoli, J.P. Effects of continuous 0.3 ppm ozone exposure on decay development and physical responses of peaches and table grapes in cold storage. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2002, 24, 39–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Wang, Z.; Wang, B.; Jin, W. Experimental investigation on decomposition of ethylene by ozone: Harmful product, food safety, and control strategy. J. Food Process. Preserv. 2021, 45, 15861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Hwang, E.S.; Cash, J.N.; Zabik, M.J. Postharvest treatments for the reduction of mancozeb in fresh apples. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2001, 44, 3127–3132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Djordjević, B.; Šavikin, K.; Zdunic, G.; Janković, T.; Vulić, T.; Oparnica, Č.; Radivojević, D. Biochemical properties of red currant varieties in relation to storage. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2010, 65, 326–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. McClurkin, J.D.; Maier, D.E.; Ileleji, K.E. Half-life time of ozone as a function of air movement and conditions in a sealed container. J. Stored Prod. Res. 2013, 55, 41–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Zapałowska, A.; Matłok, N.; Zardzewiały, M.; Piechowiak, T.; Balawejder, M. Effect of Ozone Treatment on the Quality of Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.). Plants 2021, 10, 847. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Matlok, N.; Piechowiak, T.; Gorzelany, J.; Zardzewiały, M.; Balawejder, M. Effect of Ozone Fumigation on Physiological Processes and Bioactive Compounds of Red-Veined Sorrel (Rumex sanguineus ssp. sanguineus). Agronomy 2020, 10, 1726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Matłok, N.; Gorzelany, J.; Piechowiak, T.; Antos, P.; Zardzewiały, M.; Balawejder, M. Impact of Ozonation Process on the Content of Bioactive Compounds with Antioxidant Properties in Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) Shoots as Well as Yield and Composition of Essential Oils. Acta Univ. Cibiniensis Ser. E Food Technol. 2020, 2, 146–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Matłok, N.; Piechowiak, T.; Zardzewiały, M.; Gorzelany, J.; Balawejder, M. Effects of Ozone Treatment on Microbial Status and the Contents of Selected Bioactive Compounds in Origanum majorana L. Plants. Plants 2020, 9, 1637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Gorzelany, J.; Migut, D.; Matłok, N.; Antos, P.; Kuźniar, P.; Balawejder, M. Impact of Pre-Ozonation on Mechanical Properties of Selected Genotypes of Cucumber Fruits During the Souring Process. Ozone Sci. Eng. 2017, 39, 188–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Lombardo, S.; Restuccia, C.; Pandino, G.; Licciardello, F.; Muratore, G.; Mauromicale, G. Influence of an O3-atmosphere storage on microbial growth and antioxidant contents of globe artichoke as affected by genotype and harvest time. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2015, 27, 121–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Lin, F.; Lv, K.; Shufeng, M.A.; Wang, F.; Li, J.; Wang, L. Effects of ozone treatment on storage quality and antioxidant capacity of fresh-cut water fennel [Oenanthe javanica]. Food Sci. Technol. 2023, 43, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Pretell-Vásquez, C.; Márquez-Villacorta, L.; Siche, R.; Hayayumi-Valdivia, M. Optimization of ozone concentration and storage time in green asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.) using response surface methodology. Vitae 2022, 28, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Horvitz, S.; Cantalejo, M.J. Effects of ozone and chlorine postharvest treatments on quality of fresh-cut red bell peppers. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2012, 47, 1935–1943. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Liu, H.; Xu, L.; Yu, F.; Tan, J.; Cao, L.; Xing, Y.; Xu, Q.; Yang, S.; Liu, X.; Yang, P.; et al. Effects of different ozone treatments on the storage quality and stability of fresh peeled garlic. RSC Adv. 2021, 11, 22530–22543. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Karaca, H.; Velioglu, Y.S. Effects of Ozone Treatments on Microbial Quality and Some Chemical Properties of Lettuce, Spinach, and Parsley. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2014, 88, 46–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. El-Moniem, A.; Eman, A.A.; Yousef, A.R.; Abdel-Razek, A.G.; Badr, A.N.; Mahmoud, T.S.M. Effects of Postharvest Gaseous Ozone Treatment on Quality Attributes and Extending Storage Life of Fresh Cut ‘Hass’ Avocado Fruits. Egypt. J. Chemistry. Egypt. J. Chem. 2022, 65, 27–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Li, C.; Wang, S.; Wang, J.; Wu, Z.; Xu, Y.; Wu, Z. Ozone treatment promotes physicochemical properties and antioxidant capacity of fresh-cut red pitaya based on phenolic metabolism. Front. Nutr. 2022, 9, 1016607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Alothman, M.; Kaur, B.; Fazilah, A.; Bhat, R.; Karim, A. Ozone-induced changes of antioxidant capacity of fresh-cut tropical fruits. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2010, 11, 666–671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Rodoni, L.; Casadei, N.; Concellón, A.; Chaves, A.; Vicente, A.R. Effect of short-term ozone treatments on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruit quality and cell wall degradation. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 594–599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Barth, M.M.; Zhou, C.; Mercier, J.; Payne, F.A. Ozone storage effects on anthocyanin content and fungal growth in blackberries. J. Food Sci. 1995, 60, 1286–1288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Minas, I.S.; Karaoglanidis, G.S.; Manganaris, G.A.; Vasilakakis, M. Effect of ozone application during cold storage of kiwifruit on the development of stem-end rot caused by Botrytis cinerea. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2010, 58, 203–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Lombardo, S.; Pandino, G.; Restuccia, C.; Muratore, G.; Licciardello, F.; Mauro, R.P.; Pesce, R.; Mauromicale, G. Effect of cultivar x ozone treatment interaction on the total polyphenols content and antioxidant activity of globe artichoke. Ital. J. Agron. 2015, 10, 105–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Balawejder, M.; Matłok, N.; Sowa, W.; Kończyk, N.; Piechowiak, T.; Zapałowska, A. Effect of two types of ozone treatments on the quality of apple fruits. Acta Univ. Cibiniensis. Ser. E Food Technol. 2021, 25, 285–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Vettraino, A.M.; Bianchini, L.; Caradonna, V.; Forniti, R.; Goffi, V.; Zambelli, M.; Testa, A.; Vinciguerra, V.; Botondi, R. Ozone gas as a storage treatment to control Gnomoniopsis castanea, preserving chestnut quality. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2019, 99, 6060–6065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Glowacz, M.; Colgan, R.; Rees, D. Influence of continuous exposure to gaseous ozone on the quality of red bell peppers, cucumbers and zucchini. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2015, 99, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Sharifi-Rad, M.; Anil Kumar, N.V.; Zucca, P.; Varoni, E.M.; Dini, L.; Panzarini, E.; Rajkovic, J.; Tsouh Fokou, P.V.; Azzini, E.; Peluso, I.; et al. Lifestyle, Oxidative Stress, and Antioxidants: Back and Forth in the Pathophysiology of Chronic Diseases. Front. Physiol. 2020, 11, 694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Anam, C.; Perwitasari, A.; Nur, J.; Hanifah, Y.; Nurul, E.; Sasmita, E.; Restiwijaya, M.; Kinandana, A.; Arianto, F.; Nur, M. Effect of ozone treatment on microbiological and physicochemical properties of soymilk beverage. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2020, 443, 012100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Panebianco, F.; Rubiola, S.; Di Ciccio, P.A. The Use of Ozone as an Eco-Friendly Strategy against Microbial Biofilm in Dairy Manufacturing Plants: A Review. Microorganisms 2022, 10, 162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Ong, M.K.; Ali, A. Antifungal action of ozone against Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and control of papaya anthracnose. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2015, 100, 113–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Zeynep, B.; Guzel-Seydim, A.; Greene, A.C. Use of ozone in the food industry. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2004, 37, 453–460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Rangel, K.; Cabral, F.O.; Lechuga, G.C.; Carvalho, J.P.R.S.; Villas-Bôas, M.H.S.; Midlej, V.; De-Simone, S.G. Detrimental Effect of Ozone on Pathogenic Bacteria. Microorganisms 2022, 10, 40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Xue, W.; Macleod, J.; Blaxland, J. The Use of Ozone Technology to Control Microorganism Growth, Enhance Food Safety and Extend Shelf Life: A Promising Food Decontamination Technology. Foods 2023, 12, 814. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  64. Porto, Y.D.; Trombete, F.M.; Freitas-Silva, O.; de Castro, I.M.; Direito, G.M.; Ascheri, J.L.R. Gaseous Ozonation to Reduce Aflatoxins Levels and Microbial Contamination in Corn Grits. Microorganisms 2019, 7, 220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  65. Khalil, H. Effect of ozone application on postharvest quality and microbiological state of “Zaghloul” date palm fruits. J. Plant Prod. 2019, 7, 43–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Pérez, A.G.; Sanz, C.; Ríos, J.J.; Olías, R.; Olías, J.M. Effects of ozone treatment on postharvest strawberry quality. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1999, 47, 1652–1656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Yaseen, T.; D’Onghia, A.; Ricelli, A. The use of ozone in strawberry post harvest conservation. IOBC-WPRS Bull. 2013, 86, 143–148. [Google Scholar]
  68. Palou, L.; Smilanick, J.L.; Crisosto, C.H.; Mansour, M. Effect of gaseous ozone exposure on the development of green and blue molds on cold stored citrus fruit. Plant Dis. 2001, 85, 632–638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Zorlugenç, B.; Kiroğlu Zorlugenç, F.; Oztekin, S.; Evliya, I.B. The influence of gaseous ozone and ozonated water on microbial flora and degradation of aflatoxin B (1) in dried figs. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2008, 46, 3593–3597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Pinto, L.; Palma, A.; Cefola, M.; Pace, B.; D’Aquino, S.; Carboni, C.; Baruzzi, F. Effect of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and gaseous ozone pre-packaging treatment on the physico-chemical, microbiological and sensory quality of small berry fruit. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2020, 26, 100573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Ölmez, H.; Akbas, M.Y. Optimization of ozone treatment of fresh-cut green leaf lettuce. J. Food Eng. 2009, 90, 487–494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Restuccia, C.; Lombardo, S.; Pandino, G.; Licciardello, F.; Muratore, G.; Mauromicale, G. An innovative combined water ozonisation/O3-atmosphere storage for preserving the overall quality of two globe artichoke cultivars. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2014, 21, 82–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Liew, C.L.; Prange, R.K. Effect of ozone and storage temperature on postharvest diseases and physiology of carrots (Daucus carota L.). J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 1994, 119, 563–567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Cárdenas, F.C.; Andrés, S.; Giannuzzi, L.; Zaritzky, N. Antimicrobial action and effects on beef quality attributes of a gaseous ozone treatment at refrigeration temperatures. Food Control 2011, 22, 1442–1447. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Giménez, B.; Graiver, N.; Giannuzzi, L.; Zaritzky, N. Treatment of beef with gaseous ozone: Physicochemical aspects and antimicrobial effects on heterotrophic microflora and listeria monocytogenes. Food Control 2021, 121, 107602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Ayranci, U.G.; Ozunlu, O.; Ergezer, H.; Karaca, H. Effects of Ozone Treatment on Microbiological Quality and Physicochemical Properties of Turkey Breast Meat. Ozone Sci. Eng. 2020, 42, 95–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Agriculture 13 02153 g001
Figure 1. The process of ozonation of radish plants cultivated in the ground using a cover in the form of a foil tunnel.
Figure 1. The process of ozonation of radish plants cultivated in the ground using a cover in the form of a foil tunnel.
Agriculture 13 02153 g001
Agriculture 13 02153 g002
Figure 2. Water content in samples subjected to ozonation and in the control sample on subsequent storage dates of radish tubers (n = 3). Small letters—differences between test dates; capital letters—differences between ozone doses.
Figure 2. Water content in samples subjected to ozonation and in the control sample on subsequent storage dates of radish tubers (n = 3). Small letters—differences between test dates; capital letters—differences between ozone doses.
Agriculture 13 02153 g002
Agriculture 13 02153 g003
Figure 3. Average values of destructive force for radish tubers depending on the ozone dose used and storage time (n = 3). Lowercase letters indicate differences between variants with the test date. Capital letters indicate differences between test dates.
Figure 3. Average values of destructive force for radish tubers depending on the ozone dose used and storage time (n = 3). Lowercase letters indicate differences between variants with the test date. Capital letters indicate differences between test dates.
Agriculture 13 02153 g003
Agriculture 13 02153 g004
Figure 4. Content of ascorbic acid in radish tubers depending on the ozone dose and storage time (n = 3). Lowercase letters indicate differences between variants with the test date. Capital letters indicate differences between test dates.
Figure 4. Content of ascorbic acid in radish tubers depending on the ozone dose and storage time (n = 3). Lowercase letters indicate differences between variants with the test date. Capital letters indicate differences between test dates.
Agriculture 13 02153 g004
Agriculture 13 02153 g005
Figure 5. Antioxidant activity. ABTS test (A) and DPPH test (B) in radish tubers depending on the ozone dose and storage time (n = 3). Lowercase letters indicate differences between variants with the test date. Capital letters indicate differences between test dates.
Figure 5. Antioxidant activity. ABTS test (A) and DPPH test (B) in radish tubers depending on the ozone dose and storage time (n = 3). Lowercase letters indicate differences between variants with the test date. Capital letters indicate differences between test dates.
Agriculture 13 02153 g005
Agriculture 13 02153 g006
Figure 6. Total content of polyphenols in radish tubers depending on the ozone dose and storage time (n = 3). Lowercase letters indicate differences between variants with the test date. Capital letters indicate differences between test dates.
Figure 6. Total content of polyphenols in radish tubers depending on the ozone dose and storage time (n = 3). Lowercase letters indicate differences between variants with the test date. Capital letters indicate differences between test dates.
Agriculture 13 02153 g006
Agriculture 13 02153 g007
Figure 7. Microbiological load. (A) Number of yeasts and molds; (B) number of aerobic mesophilic bacteria) of radish tubers depending on the ozone dose and storage time (n = 3). Lowercase letters indicate differences between variants with the test date. Capital letters indicate differences between test dates.
Figure 7. Microbiological load. (A) Number of yeasts and molds; (B) number of aerobic mesophilic bacteria) of radish tubers depending on the ozone dose and storage time (n = 3). Lowercase letters indicate differences between variants with the test date. Capital letters indicate differences between test dates.
Agriculture 13 02153 g007
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zardzewiały, M.; Matłok, N.; Piechowiak, T.; Balawejder, M. The Influence of Ozonation Carried Out during Vegetation on the Content of Selected Bioactive Phytochemicals and the Microbiological Load of Tubers of Raphanus sativus var. sativus. Agriculture 2023, 13, 2153. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13112153

AMA Style

Zardzewiały M, Matłok N, Piechowiak T, Balawejder M. The Influence of Ozonation Carried Out during Vegetation on the Content of Selected Bioactive Phytochemicals and the Microbiological Load of Tubers of Raphanus sativus var. sativus. Agriculture. 2023; 13(11):2153. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13112153

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zardzewiały, Miłosz, Natalia Matłok, Tomasz Piechowiak, and Maciej Balawejder. 2023. "The Influence of Ozonation Carried Out during Vegetation on the Content of Selected Bioactive Phytochemicals and the Microbiological Load of Tubers of Raphanus sativus var. sativus" Agriculture 13, no. 11: 2153. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13112153

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop