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Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Altered Immune System Leading to Susceptibility to Pathogens, Especially Mycobacterium tuberculosis

1
College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766-1854, USA
2
Graduate College of Biomedical Sciences, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766-1854, USA
3
Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766-1854, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Clin. Med. 2019, 8(12), 2219; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8122219
Received: 18 November 2019 / Accepted: 10 December 2019 / Published: 16 December 2019
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Host-Directed Therapies for Tuberculosis)
There has been an alarming increase in the incidence of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) worldwide. Uncontrolled T2DM can lead to alterations in the immune system, increasing the risk of susceptibility to infections such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb). Altered immune responses could be attributed to factors such as the elevated glucose concentration, leading to the production of Advanced Glycation End products (AGE) and the constant inflammation, associated with T2DM. This production of AGE leads to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the use of the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) via the Polyol pathway, and overall diminished levels of glutathione (GSH) and GSH-producing enzymes in T2DM patients, which alters the cytokine profile and changes the immune responses within these patients. Thus, an understanding of the intricate pathways responsible for the pathogenesis and complications in T2DM, and the development of strategies to enhance the immune system, are both urgently needed to prevent co-infections and co-morbidities in individuals with T2DM. View Full-Text
Keywords: type 2 diabetes; co-morbidities; co-infections; cytokines; inflammation; redox imbalance; antioxidants type 2 diabetes; co-morbidities; co-infections; cytokines; inflammation; redox imbalance; antioxidants
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MDPI and ACS Style

Ferlita, S.; Yegiazaryan, A.; Noori, N.; Lal, G.; Nguyen, T.; To, K.; Venketaraman, V. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Altered Immune System Leading to Susceptibility to Pathogens, Especially Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J. Clin. Med. 2019, 8, 2219. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8122219

AMA Style

Ferlita S, Yegiazaryan A, Noori N, Lal G, Nguyen T, To K, Venketaraman V. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Altered Immune System Leading to Susceptibility to Pathogens, Especially Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2019; 8(12):2219. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8122219

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ferlita, Steve, Aram Yegiazaryan, Navid Noori, Gagandeep Lal, Timothy Nguyen, Kimberly To, and Vishwanath Venketaraman. 2019. "Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Altered Immune System Leading to Susceptibility to Pathogens, Especially Mycobacterium tuberculosis" Journal of Clinical Medicine 8, no. 12: 2219. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8122219

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