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Review

The Impact of High-Intensity Interval Training on Cardiometabolic, Neurologic, Oncologic, and Pain-Related Outcomes: A Comprehensive Review of Systematic Reviews

by
Dmitriy Viderman
1,*,
Yeltay Rakhmanov
1,
Mina Aubakirova
1,
Sultan Kalikanov
1 and
Michael Fredericson
2
1
School of Medicine, Nazarbayev University, 5/1 Kerey and Zhanibek Khans Ave., Astana 02000, Kazakhstan
2
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Division of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, Stanford University, 450 Broadway, Redwood City, CA 94063, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Clin. Med. 2025, 14(23), 8328; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14238328 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 11 October 2025 / Revised: 10 November 2025 / Accepted: 13 November 2025 / Published: 24 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Activity, Exercise and Health: Clinical Management and Research)
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Abstract

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) has gained attention for its potential to improve health outcomes across various conditions. Thus, the aim of the study was to summarize studies on HIIT to understand its effects on various health outcomes. We conducted an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. PubMed, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, EMBASE, Scopus, CINAHL, and Web of Science were searched for relevant articles. The experimental group was subjected to HIIT with or without treatment, while the control group comprised individuals who underwent alternative forms of training or were non-exercisers. Included studies were systematically analyzed for effects of HIIT and cardiovascular, respiratory, metabolic, neurological, gastrointestinal, immunological, and survival-related outcomes. Of 336 identified systematic reviews, 133 were included in the final analysis. HIIT was found to confer significant physiological benefits, including improvements in body composition, cardiovascular and metabolic parameters, and mental health outcomes. Studies demonstrated the efficacy of HIIT across diverse patient populations, with comparable or superior effects to moderate-intensity continuous training in conditions such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, neurological, oncologic, and pain-related disorders. Our review highlights the potential of HIIT as a time-efficient intervention for improving health outcomes and managing chronic diseases. However, interpretation of the results should be performed cautiously due to the heterogeneity observed. High-intensity interval training shows promise as an effective strategy for managing chronic diseases among diverse patient populations. Future research should focus on refining HIIT protocols and elucidating their long-term effects and sustainability.

1. Introduction

Currently, chronic diseases contribute to almost half of the total global disease burden; estimates suggest that six out of every ten deaths are associated with chronic conditions. Studies have highlighted the importance of consistent physical activity in lowering the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, diabetes, hypertension, colon cancer, breast cancer, and depression. The prevalence of chronic diseases highlights the need for preventive actions like physical exercise as a primary solution to maintain or improve health [1]. People without health problems should have at least 2.5 h of physical exercise of moderate intensity or 1.15 h of exercise of high intensity weekly to keep or strengthen their health, as per recommendations by the World Health Organization and the American College of Sports Medicine [1,2]. High-intensity interval training (HIIT) involves a cycle of brief, high-intensity physical exercise periods alternating with low-intensity recovery periods. The feasibility of HIIT as a substitute for the usual physical activity approaches has been previously investigated [2,3]. HIIT provides comparable or superior health benefits to traditional exercise approaches, including increased aerobic capacity and reduced risk factors for many diseases and conditions [2,3,4]. Specifically, HIIT has been found to have significant physiological benefits, such as improving oxygen uptake, body composition, blood glucose and pressure levels, inflammatory markers, exercise capacity, cognitive and mental health, and quality of life [2,4]. HIIT has been suggested as a potential solution to the everyday barriers preventing people from exercising, particularly the inability to devote much time to the activity. Compared with traditional exercise approaches, HIIT provides an opportunity to improve health while spending less time. This makes it an attractive option for those who struggle to find time for physical activity. HIIT is particularly beneficial for improvements in aerobic capacity and minimizing the risk of adverse conditions potentially leading to metabolic problems, such as hypertension and insensitivity to insulin [2,5]. A number of systematic reviews have emerged in broader clinical contexts, but they were limited in scope to selected populations or outcome categories. These include oncologic, neurological, musculoskeletal, and pain-related conditions, as well as pediatric and older adult groups. No comprehensive synthesis has integrated these diverse findings to identify consistent patterns and evidence gaps across various health outcomes. Therefore, this umbrella review provides an updated, cross-disciplinary synthesis of the effects of HIIT on multiple physiological systems, summarizes its comparative efficacy versus moderate-intensity continuous training, and highlights fields that require further investigation and clinical standardization. Specifically, the objectives were to (a) collect and examine systematic reviews focused on the effects of HIIT to understand its outcome values and (b) synthesize cumulative effects of HIIT across different health domains and patient populations, based on evidence from systematic reviews and meta-analyses.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Criteria for Inclusion

We used the following inclusion criteria for this review: (1) study design; (2) patient population; (3) intervention/control; and (4) outcomes.
Patient population: We selected participants without restriction to gender, age, diagnosis, comorbidities, health, and physical activity status.
Intervention: The experiment group received HIIT (all types without limitation to any specific type of HIIT) with or without standard treatment.
Control: Other types of training, such as moderate- or low-intensity continuous training or non-exercising population.
Outcomes: The primary outcomes of this review included:
  • Cardiometabolic outcomes;
  • Neurological outcomes;
  • Metabolic/endocrine outcomes;
  • Oncologic outcomes;
  • Pain-related outcomes.
Study design: Systematic reviews with or without meta-analyses.

2.2. Criteria for Exclusion

We used the following inclusion criteria for this review: (1) study design; (2) population; (3) intervention; (4) controls; (5) outcomes; (6) availability; and (7) language.
Study design: Commentaries, editorials, letters, protocols, primary studies (randomized controlled study or observational study), conference abstracts without full text, or older versions of the same systematic review.
Population: Non-human (animal or in vitro) studies or populations not involving human participants.
Intervention: Reviews without a HIIT (i.e., only moderate/low-intensity training or non-exercise).
Controls: Any control, excluding only if HIIT is not clearly defined.
Outcomes: Reviews that do not clearly report primary outcome (cardiometabolic, neurological, metabolic/endocrine, oncologic, or pain-related).
Availability: In the case that the full text is unavailable after reasonable efforts to obtain it.
Language: In the case that the full text is not available in English after reasonable efforts to obtain it.

2.3. Search Strategy

The list of databases searched is as follows: PubMed, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, EMBASE, Scopus, and Web of Science. The search terms used were: “high intensity interval training” OR (“high intensity” AND “interval” AND “training”) OR “high intensity interval training” OR (“high” AND “intensity “AND “interval” AND “training”) OR (“high intensity interval training”) AND (“insurance benefits” (“insurance” AND “benefits”) OR “insurance benefits” OR (“health” AND “benefits”) OR “health benefits”). We manually screened the reference sections of the SRs and MAs. We contacted the corresponding authors for further explanations if deemed necessary. Three authors worked independently utilizing the pre-determined search strategy, and any cases of mismatch were further resolved. Two reviewers performed data extraction.

2.4. Data Synthesis and Analysis

We categorized the type of objectives of the studies, diseases and comorbidities studied, effects of HIIT, and outcomes. We designed “evidence tables” to facilitate an in-depth description of the included SRs and the respective findings.

2.5. Methodological Quality Assessment

The quality appraisal was performed by AMSTAR-2 (A MeaSurement Tool to Assess systematic Reviews) [6]. The appraisal was performed by two authors independently and compared with each other. Discrepancies, if any, were resolved by discussion. Each item was rated as “Yes” (meets the standard), “No” (does not meet the standard or unclear), “Partial yes” (meets the standard with some limitations), and “N/A” (not applicable because the study did not perform the quantitative synthesis).
Overall confidence was determined based on the absence and presence of critical domains (items 2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15). The rating is as follows:
  • High: 0–1 non-critical weakness;
  • Moderate: more than one non-critical weakness;
  • Low: 1 critical flaw (with/without other weaknesses);
  • Critically low: more than 1 critical flaw (with/without other weaknesses).

3. Results

3.1. Included Studies

We initially identified 336 SRs matching the inclusion criteria, 133 of them were finally selected [2,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138].

3.1.1. Patient Population and Objectives of the Meta-Analyses

The effects of HIIT have been studied in a wide variety of diseases and conditions, including cardiovascular, respiratory, metabolic, oncologic, neurologic, and musculoskeletal diseases. Many studies focused on the effects of HIIT on several organ systems (cardiovascular, pulmonary, and endocrine/metabolic) and diseases. The objectives of the included SRs and MAs studied the following effects of HIIT (Table 1) [2,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138].

3.1.2. Reported Diagnoses

The effects of HIIT were studied in patients with the following conditions: diabetes mellitus type 1 (DMT1) and 2 (DMT2), obesity, coronary artery disease (CAD), myocardial infarction (MI), post-MI syndrome, heart transplant, cancer, chronic heart failure (CHF), coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG), arrhythmias, stroke, atherosclerosis, prehypertension, hypertension (HTN), asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), Parkinson’s disease, muscular skeletal (MSK) disorders (non-specified), metabolic syndrome, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), schizophrenia, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), spinal cord injury, cancer (lung, breast, bladder, rectal, liver, rectal, testicular), Alzheimer’s disease, mental illness, anxiety, eating, stress disorders [7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138].

3.2. Findings

HIIT has been found to have significant physiological benefits (Figure 1), including reducing arterial peripheral resistance, SBP, DBP, blood glucose (BG), improvement in pancreatic β-cell function, and insulin sensitivity/secretion, increase in GLUT-4 expression in skeletal muscles waist circumference (WC), and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC). HIIT induces continuous shear stress that can activate potassium channels in endothelial cells and promote greater activity of eNOS, ultimately leading to vasodilation [7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24]. Numerous studies showed that loss of lean muscle mass, excessive body fat, and low cardio-respiratory physical state all augment the risk of illness and death. There is a substantial amount of evidence from numerous RCTs showing that HIIT can significantly improve outcomes in patients with cardiac, pulmonary, and metabolic diseases. There is no clear evidence that a short course of HIIT is better than MICT or no exercise for decreasing body fat and increasing muscle mass. However, even a low dose of HIIT was found superior over no exercise and more beneficial than MICT in enhancing cardiorespiratory fitness. It is worth noting that the practicality and effects of performing low-volume HIIT on a larger scale, outside of a lab setting, still need to be discovered [7].

3.2.1. HIIT Exercise-Induced Physiological Potential to Influence Metabolic Syndrome

Supervised low-volume HIIT significantly improved pancreatic β-cell function, which is adjusted for insulin sensitivity and can predict the development of type 2 diabetes. The mechanisms behind the improved pancreatic β-cell function could be multifaceted and may involve anti-inflammatory cytokines secreted by adipocytes and myocytes. It remains to be determined whether long-term exercise has an insulinogenic effect in a T2D population [8,9].
HIIT is potentially capable of improving metabolic syndrome [8]. HIIT positively impacted various health markers such as blood pressure, blood glucose, and waist circumference in people with metabolic syndrome. However, there was only a slight increase in HDL cholesterol levels and no significant effect on triglyceride levels. The decrease in blood glucose levels after HIIT may be due to increased blood flow, skeletal muscle mass, and insulin receptors, which lead to enhanced glucose disposal in the muscles. HIIT can increase GLUT-4 expression in skeletal muscles, a protein involved in glucose transport [7].

3.2.2. Effects of HIIT on Blood Pressure and Vascular Function

The clinical impact of HIIT in reducing SBP and DBP (by around 4 mmHg) is significant as even small decreases of 2 mmHg can lower the incidence of various cardiovascular outcomes such as CAD, MI, stroke, and death. The pathways behind these blood pressure declines have yet to be fully understood. However, potential explanations include improved baroreflex control of sympathetic nerve activity, decreased circulation of norepinephrine (postexercise), decreased total peripheral resistance, and changes in vasodilator and vasoconstrictor factors, all triggered by exercise. Although the extent to which intensity affects the reduction in systolic and diastolic blood pressure is not entirely clear, HIIT appears to be more effective at reducing these measures compared to other types of exercise sessions [8,9].
As the exercise becomes more intense, blood flow and shear stress also increase. In contrast, sedentary individuals who experience chronic low-shear stress due to inactivity are more susceptible to elevations in biomarkers related to vascular dysfunction. These include pro-inflammatory factors, reduced antioxidant expression, oxidative stress, and cell adhesion molecules. HIIT may induce continuous shear stress that can activate potassium channels in endothelial cells and promote greater activity of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), ultimately leading to vasodilation. However, studies comparing HIIT and other types of training found no difference in shear rate, suggesting that HIIT may enhance vascular function through other mechanisms beyond increasing shear stress. Yet, only HIIT significantly increased NO bioavailability [10].
Moreover, the researchers speculated that there may be an exercise intensity threshold beyond which nitric oxide (NO) availability could be compromised, as indicated by elevated production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and decreased circulating antioxidants at higher intensities of physical activity. It is crucial to note that avoiding intensive exercise over the recommended intensity threshold can prevent negative effects on vascular function. The HIIT protocol, which involves short bouts of HIIT with a recovery period between high-intensity intervals, could be a safe and effective way to avoid the adverse effects of excessive HIIT [10].
HIIT was superior to moderate-intensity continuous training MICT in enhancing vascular function. HIIT can improve brachial artery flow-mediated dilation more than MICT, which aligns with previous research showing an association between cardiorespiratory fitness and flow-mediated dilation. HIIT has also been found to enhance cardio-respiratory function more than MICT. The ability of HIIT to mitigate common CVD risk factors, such as insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and inflammation, may explain its superiority in enhancing vascular function. Additionally, HIIT has a more pronounced effect on the cardio-respiratory physical state and CVD-related biomarkers than MICT.
The superiority of HIIT of increasing vascular function over MICT might be explained by its capacity to stimulate enhanced blood flow through the vasculature, providing oxygen to the engaged muscles and promoting greater stress-induced NO bioavailability [10].

3.2.3. HIIT in PCOS

Using only HIIT is a successful method for decreasing BMI in women with PCOS. The research indicates that HIIT enhances certain clinical results in these patients, highlighting exercise’s potential for being an intervention for PCOS not requiring medication [9].
The potential of HIIT to decrease the homeostatic model assessment parameter in women with PCOS may stem from its incorporation of short bursts of intense exercise, such as reaching or surpassing 90% of VO2 max or maximum heart rate. HIIT offers a time-efficient training method that enhances mitochondrial function in muscles, leading to increased insulin sensitivity and biogenesis stimulation [9]. Activation of mitochondria during HIIT results in heightened energy production and improved skeletal muscle oxidation capacity. Furthermore, HIIT programs demonstrate superior antioxidant adaptations compared to sustained moderate-intensity exercise. These findings suggest that HIIT may be more effective in reducing the homeostatic model assessment parameter than moderate-intensity exercise, potentially due to its ability to mitigate oxidative stress, which plays a crucial role in insulin resistance development. Previously, excess adiposity was linked to deteriorating health in women with PCOS, and lifestyle-induced changes in body composition over approximately six months were associated with restored ovulation in obese women with PCOS. This underscores the connection between physical exercise and improved health outcomes in women with PCOS, likely mediated through adiposity reduction. However, this hypothesis may not hold for women with PCOS who maintain a normal BMI [9].

3.2.4. HIIT for Cardiometabolic Correction in Children

HIIT might be an efficient exercise for improving and reducing cardiovascular risks and enhancing overall well-being in the pediatric population. Subsequent research should allow a longer time for follow-up when designing their study to evaluate if the positive benefits achieved through HIIT are sustained over the long term [11].

3.2.5. HIIT After Myocardial Infarction

In post-MI patients, HIIT was more advantageous in augmenting peak VO2 compared to control groups without causing any adverse effects. Further analysis revealed that HIIT was more effective than MICT and standard exercise in improving peak VO2. However, there were no significant differences in the effects of HIIT versus MICT or usual physical activity on blood pressure, peak and resting heart rate, left ventricular ejection fraction, left ventricular end-diastolic volume, and QoL [13].
The effectiveness of HIIT in lowering blood pressure in post-MI patients is debated. Some studies argue that HIIT has a superior effect than MICT, while others do not find a significant difference. HIIT lowered heart rate and reduced arrhythmic events, but there was no significant effect on LVF and remodeling in cardiac patients. The evidence suggests that HIIT is safe for cardiac rehabilitation, but the safety concern for post-MI patients requires further evaluation.
Additionally, HIIT and traditional protocols of training showed comparable safety results for post-MI patients undergoing cardiac rehabilitation, without differences in the incidence of cardiovascular complications or injuries provoked by exercise in the HIIT groups compared to the control groups [12].
Although, in middle-aged and older adults, both MICT and interval training demonstrated significant positive changes in cardio-respiratory fitness. However, in comparison to MICT, HIIT and sprint interval training led to greater increases in maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) [13,14].

3.2.6. HIIT in HF

The exercise program for individuals with HF usually involves aerobic exercise, either continuously or in intervals. Research has shown that HIIT can increase aerobic capacity more than continuous exercise in individuals with HF. However, the evidence is insufficient to conclude that HIIT is superior to continuous training [15].
HIIT is a successful technique in treating HF and CAD as it enhances peak VO2, with HF patients experiencing a notably greater increase. To maximize the advantages, HF patients should have active recovery intervals at intensities ranging from 40% to 60% of peak VO2. The frequency of training should be 3 d/wk for HF patients and 2 d/wk for CAD patients [16].

3.2.7. Neurological and Psychological Outcomes

The majority of research investigating the relationship between HIIT and sleep has been conducted on adults [17].
HIIT was associated with better sleep outcomes and reduced psychological distress compared to non-active controls, and it was generally considered safe and well-attended across different populations. Overall, these findings provide evidence for the use of HIIT as a means of improving mental health [18].
Engaging in HIIT may enhance the cognitive capacity and psychological well-being of minors. The immediate effects of HIIT were found to be more potent than its long-term effects on cognitive function. Furthermore, HIIT interventions resulted in positive changes in both positive and negative mental states. However, given the scarcity of studies and the considerable variability in their outcomes, further high-quality research is required to validate these results [19].
HIIT and MICT have comparable effects on cardiorespiratory fitness outcomes, but HIIT might offer a slight advantage over MICT for alleviating depression. HIIT shows promising results in improving cardiorespiratory fitness and depression but does not seem significantly affect metabolic factors. Experiments involving physical activity have a crucial role in enhancing physical and mental health indicators for individuals with serious mental illness and should be included in their multidisciplinary management. People with serious mental illness ought to be motivated to select a physical activity program that complies with their abilities and preferences, and HIIT is a viable option that could be beneficial for those willing and able to participate in it [20].
Various methods of HIIT have been found to have positive and relevant short-term effects on academic performance and learning behavior. This suggests that HIIT interventions could be helpful in combating the sedentary lifestyle epidemic and enhancing cognitive abilities in young people [21].

3.2.8. HIIT in Persons with Spinal Cord Injury

PwSCI (persons with spinal cord injury) can improve their cardiorespiratory fitness by engaging in HIIT and continuous resistance training. Almost all types of vigorous exercise interventions have significantly improved cardiorespiratory fitness, suggesting that PwSCI should include such exercises in their usual physical activity routines. However, no significant differences were observed between exercises of high intensity and the standard moderate-intensity ones. Most of the included studies involved few participants with poor fitness levels, indicating the necessity for high-quality studies examining the effect of exercise of varying intensity on physical state. Subsequent RCTs should recruit more participants and ensure recruited PwSCI are physically active [22].

3.2.9. Oncological Outcomes

Due to its intense nature, the feasibility of incorporating HIIT into cancer patients’ clinical pathways should be carefully evaluated. According to the existing SRs and MAs, HIIT was not significantly superior to usual care, although it showed greater effectiveness over programs of moderate intensity. The “Preoperative Exercise to Improve Fitness in Patients Undergoing Complex Surgery for Cancer of the Lung or Oesophagus (PRE-high-intensity interval training)” study protocol aims to verify if HIIT can improve preoperative fitness. The study will analyze participants’ adherence and the effects of HIIT on VO2peak, advancing knowledge in this field [23].
Short-term HIIT has demonstrated itself as more effective than usual care (UC) in improving physical fitness and health-related outcomes in oncological patients. However, it is uncertain whether it has a clear advantage over moderate-intensity continuous training. Therefore, using HIIT for cancer patients, especially those with time constraints, during and after treatment may be beneficial [24].

3.2.10. The Impact of HIIT on Pain-Related Disorders

HIIT for Fibromyalgia: Combining HIIT with strength and flexibility exercises, as well as MICT with strength and flexibility exercises, led to significant improvements in fibromyalgia symptoms, pain levels, functional abilities, and overall quality of life when compared to a control group [136].
HIIT for Cancer-Related Fatigue and Pain: Both HIIT and combined HIIT interventions have shown significant efficacy in reducing cancer-related fatigue (CRF) and associated pain. Despite earlier safety concerns, HIIT and combined HIIT programs might be considered a safe, effective, and time-efficient training modality to reduce CRF and pain in cancer patients as well as survivors. [137].
HIIT for Musculoskeletal Pain Conditions: Evidence suggests that HIIT interventions for musculoskeletal disorders can reduce pain intensity and improve VO2 max, but not disability or quality of life. Sub-analyses indicate that HIIT is not superior to other exercise models in alleviating pain. While HIIT can be implemented to improve pain intensity or cardiorespiratory fitness, it is essential to note that changes in pain intensity may not correlate with improvements in quality of life or disability. Pain intensity scores in patients are inversely linked with VO2 max, a crucial predictor of cardiovascular health and overall mortality. Individuals with chronic pain and musculoskeletal disorders have elevated risks of cardiovascular and chronic diseases, as well as mortality due to cardiac issues. Improving cardiorespiratory capacity, which HIIT effectively achieves, was shown to decrease mortality risk by up to 16% [37].
In knee osteoarthritis, high-intensity strength training demonstrates similar efficacy in improving knee pain, function, and quality of life compared with low-intensity strength training and standard care with comparable safety [138].
Taken together, these findings suggest that HIIT serves as an effective modality to reduce pain and enhance physical function across a spectrum of pain-related conditions. Although its impact on quality of life remains inconsistent, HIIT may indirectly reduce pain-related morbidity.

3.3. Quality Assessment Results

The AMSTAR-2 analysis (Table S1 Supplementary Material) has been performed based on 16 critical and non-critical domains. The distribution of the overall confidence rating is as follows: 5 articles with high confidence, 20 articles with moderate confidence, 27 articles with low confidence, and 82 articles with critically low confidence. The analysis confirms that certain critical domains are systematically unmet: 99 articles did not clearly state protocol registration or did not state it at all (item 2). 86 articles did not clearly justify the exclusion of individual studies (item 7). 95 did not properly assess the risk of bias in individual studies (item 9). 45 did not consider the risk of bias when interpreting the results of the review (item 13). 75 did not properly assess the publication bias (item 15). On the other hand, only 2 articles did not provide appropriate meta-analytical methods, and only 8 articles did not provide adequate literature search (item 4).

3.4. Consistency and Discrepancies and Reported Mechanisms

A new table has been created (Table 2) that summarizes the direction of results (effect) for every included study by category. 84 studies belonged to the cardiometabolic category: 64 studies reported positive effects, 17 reported comparable effects, 2 noted “depends on personalized approach,” and 1 study noted “unclear.” These findings suggest a consistently beneficial direction for cardiometabolic outcomes. 13 studies belonged to the neurologic category: 12 studies reported positive effects, and 1 reported comparable effects. Such a prominent positive skew indicates a consistent direction of benefit for neurologic outcomes. 26 studies belonged to the metabolic category: 16 reported positive effects, 7 reported comparable effects, 1 reported inconsistent, 1 did not conclude, and 1 was not applicable. Most findings were positive, but the presence of comparable results indicates some variability in metabolic outcomes. 8 studies belonged to the oncologic category: 5 reported positive effects, 2 comparable, and 1 not significant. These findings suggest partial consistency with occasional discrepancies. 3 studies focused predominantly on pain-related outcomes and 2 reported a comparable effect while 1 reported positive effect. No definitive trend can be inferred.
The tabulation of reported mechanisms (Table 2) revealed a dichotomy: superficial and in-depth reported mechanisms. The cardiometabolic category exhibits the widest range of mechanisms. The general outcomes include “Increased oxygen uptake” and “Peripheral muscle and central cardiorespiratory adaptation”. The more detailed mechanisms consistently converge on three interconnected molecular pathways. The first pathway revolves around Mitochondrial Biogenesis. Mechanisms reported include “Mitochondrial adaptations,” “increases in citrate synthase maximal activity,” and the activation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK). AMPK activation boosts proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α) expression, a regulator recognized for its central role in energy metabolism. The molecular cascade manages the cell’s capacity for sustained energy production and oxidative capacity. The second pathway involves endothelial function and Nitric Oxide (NO) bioavailability. An increase in NO concentration in endothelial cells enhances dependency on peripheral vascular compliance and improves the function of endothelial progenitor cells. Such adaptations are crucial for reducing peripheral resistance and improving arterial flexibility. Thirdly, the central cardiorespiratory changes are also reported. This includes increased stroke volume and ejection fraction induced by enhanced left ventricular systolic function, alongside adaptations in baroreflex-mediated modulation of the sinoatrial node. Metabolic category mechanisms are more molecularly defined. The key specific mechanism is the enhancement of insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake. This is achieved through the increased translocation of Glucose Transporter Type 4 (GLUT-4) to the plasma membrane. GLUT-4 facilitates the diffusion of plasma glucose into muscle tissue and adipose cells. Moreover, HIIT promotes the activity of glycolytic and oxidative enzymes, reduces liver fat, and improves postprandial glucose levels. Likewise, reported mechanisms cite the promotion of glycolipid metabolism, increased fat oxidation, and significant lipolysis driven by increased catecholamine production during exercise. Additionally, HIIT influences hormonal regulation by activating the Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, increasing testosterone/cortisol immediately post-session, and chronically modulating appetite by decreasing acylated ghrelin, which may suppress hunger. The neurologic category depicts strong molecular and psychosocial consistency. Most studies report activation of PGC-1α–BDNF pathways, linking metabolic stress (e.g., ↑ H2O2, TNF-α) to enhanced neurogenesis and cognitive performance. Importantly, psychosocial mechanisms, improvements in self-esteem, mood, and motivation, promote adherence and create a positive feedback loop, where emotional gains sustain physiological adaptation. In oncologic and pain-related categories, mechanisms overlap with cardiometabolic responses, emphasizing mitochondrial biogenesis, angiogenesis, and AMPK-PGC1α activation. Most studies highlight improved oxygen uptake and functional capacity. Targeted molecular effects, such as reduced IL-6, indicate additional anti-inflammatory benefits. A major limitation running across all categories is the tendency for studies to report theoretical or correlational mechanisms.
Studies investigating optimal training duration reported that the maximum benefits are generally between 6 and 12 weeks. Exceeding 6 weeks is necessary to yield significant benefits, particularly for cardiorespiratory fitness and fat loss. Such a window corresponds to the biological timeframe required for structural adaptations, such as mitochondrial biogenesis and vascular remodeling. Regarding frequency, the most commonly cited effective range is 2 to 3 sessions per week. A notable finding indicates that increasing training frequency beyond this minimum may not yield superior molecular outcomes. This suggests that the physiological system may reach saturation at a certain frequency. The high intensity of HIIT drives its unique molecular signature through the recruitment of specific muscle fibers and high metabolic turnover. This includes high speeds to promote the recruitment of type II fast-twitch muscle fibers crucial for the rapid, short-duration power output. Protocols often specify precise high-intensity intervals, such as 4 min at high intensity. The use of adjuncts, such as partial Blood Flow Restriction occlusion and Hypoxic Stimuli, demonstrates an attempt to heighten the acute metabolic stress and subsequent molecular signaling, thereby maximizing the efficacy of the training session.

4. Discussion

The current evidence shows that HIIT is beneficial in multiple disorders such as cardiovascular, respiratory, metabolic, neurologic, and oncologic ones. Dozens of studies have confirmed the positive effects of HIIT on the effective management of these diseases. The evidence synthesis revealed a generally uniform benefit of HIIT or similar exercise on cardiometabolic and neurologic outcomes. In the cardiometabolic category of studies, almost all report improvements (VO2max, insulin sensitivity, blood pressure). Likewise, in neurologic studies, almost all report positive cognitive or neural benefits. The metabolic and oncologic categories show more mixed patterns, and a few oncologic studies found non-significant changes. This suggests consistency within certain domains (cardiac, fitness, cognition) but greater heterogeneity in metabolic and cancer-related outcomes. The skew toward positive results in nearly every category is notable. Thus, there is concern that negative or null results might be underreported. Such a pattern suggests at least some bias toward publishing favorable results. However, where outcomes were reported as “Comparable” (no difference between HIIT and moderate exercise), this could reflect genuine null findings or underpowered studies. A very high proportion of positive outcomes suggests possible publication bias or positive-reporting bias. This may reflect that many included sources were reviews or guidelines summarizing existing positive trials.
HIIT might not be suitable for some patient populations, including beginners, due to its demanding nature and the necessity for proper warm-up, execution, and cooldown techniques. Novices may lack the necessary form and fitness level for high-intensity workouts, increasing their risk of injury. Individuals with heart conditions or other health issues exacerbated by vigorous exertion should avoid HIIT unless authorized by a medical professional. HIIT poses a higher risk of injury due to its rapid pace and complex movements. Quick execution and poor form increase the likelihood of muscle strains. Moreover, HIIT can lead to overuse injuries and joint strains due to the significant stress it places on the body. Adequate rest between sets and sessions is crucial for injury prevention.
While short-term HIIT has shown superiority over usual care in improving physical fitness and health-related outcomes, its distinct advantage over moderate-intensity continuous training remains uncertain. Therefore, using HIIT for cancer patients who can tolerate this intensity, especially those with time constraints, during and after treatment, may be beneficial. Further studies are encouraged to investigate the effectiveness of HIIT in improving fat-muscle-bone proportions, self-reported effects of the intervention, and serum indicators throughout the intervention and the follow-up period [24].
Additionally, another study revealed that short-term and long-term HIIT interventions yielded favorable outcomes on cardiometabolic health indicators [2]. This further highlights the potential of HIIT as a versatile intervention for improving various physiological functions, including body composition, VO2max, endothelial function, muscle strength, functional movement and motor functions, exercise capacity, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate, pain, QoL, depression, LVEF, glycemic control and insulin resistance, lipid profile and blood glucose, post-stroke rehabilitation, fall prevention, liver fat content, preoperative fitness, cognitive, psychological and mental health, executive functions and quality of sleep.
The reliance on systemic outcomes and the theoretical nature of many molecular pathways underscores a critical evidence gap. The existence of numerous “Comparable” or “Inconsistent” results in the analysis, despite strong theoretical mechanistic potential, highlights the non-uniform translation of molecular signals into functional superiority. This suggests that the effectiveness of HIIT is highly context-dependent and variable, demonstrating that the underlying molecular potential does not translate uniformly without robust, individualized protocols. While the specific biological action of HIIT appears to center on superior peripheral vascular remodeling (evidenced by the (DBP) effect) and potent molecular signaling cascades (AMPK/PGC-1alpha), the most critical factor dictating whether an individual successfully activates and sustains these pathways is long-term adherence.

4.1. Implications for Future Research

Additional studies are required in various applications of HIIT in clinical medicine including metabolic, cardiovascular, pulmonary, cancer, etc.
Although the metabolic effects of HIIT on vascular function have been extensively studied, further investigation is required to understand the mechanism through which HIIT induces metabolic changes and to identify the lower-end thresholds of frequency and intensity, and what intervals of HIIT exercise are needed to achieve superior effectiveness [7].
Future research should also explore the impact of HIIT on other physical fitness areas, such as sprinting ability, running performance, and countermovement jumping [24].
Given the numerous health benefits of HIIT, it of utmost importance for future studies to delve into the effects of HIIT on the overall health and sleep quality of children and adolescents. This research area holds significant implications for their well-being and development. It is also crucial to explore different forms of HIIT and compare HIIT with other types of exercise in future studies [17].
Physical education teachers, professionals in sports sciences, educators, and researchers should take this into account in the future work. Additional studies spanning over a longer time are necessary [21].
Additional studies are required to assess the safety and effectiveness of HIIT in cardiac rehabilitation, with a larger number of participants, increased duration of follow-up, stratification of patients for cardiac rehabilitation risk, and the consideration of the effect of cardiac medications on outcomes [12].
More studies are needed to assess the effects of HIIT on outcomes in spinal cord injury patients.
Most of the included studies involved a low number of participants with poor fitness levels, indicating the necessity for high-quality studies that examine the effect of exercise of varying intensity on physical state. Subsequent RCTs should recruit more participants and ensure that the recruited PwSCI are active [22]. Future research is also needed to evaluate the impact of HIIT on outcomes in cancer patients. Specifically, future studies should establish the level of intensity at which significant changes can be achieved close to the operation day and to analyze the acceptability and feasibility of HIIT programs [23].

4.2. Limitations

Although HIIT has existed for decades, the evidence is still growing. Since we focused on SRs rather than stand-alone experimental studies, we might not have captured recently published primary research articles. HIIT included heterogeneous and multimodal types of HIIT protocols and other exercises, which can add heterogeneity to our conclusions. Moreover, there was heterogeneity in the diseases and outcomes studied.
AMSTAR-2 analysis revealed that most of the studies lacked critical items 2, 7, 9, 13, 15. This raises concern about selective reporting and post hoc decision bias (due to item 2), study selection bias (due to item 7), confidence in pooled evidence quality (due to item 9 and 13), and selective publication (due to item 15).
Protocol variability is another major challenge. Studies vary significantly in interval duration, intensity, recovery time, and overall intervention duration, making cross-study comparisons difficult. Inconsistent reporting of workload and compliance also reduces the reproducibility of results and the interpretation of dose–response relationships. Finally, short follow-up periods (often ≤ 12 weeks) make it difficult to assess long-term sustainability, relapse rates, and physiological maintenance. Few studies assess whether improvements are maintained after the intervention period, leaving the duration of HIIT-induced adaptations uncertain.
These limitations should be considered when conducting future research and implementing this evidence into practice.

5. Conclusions

High-intensity interval training has been reported to improve numerous physiological functions and outcomes, including improved body composition, VO2max, endothelial function, muscle strength, functional movement and motor functions, exercise capacity, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate, pain, QoL, depression, LVEF, glycemic control and insulin resistance, lipid profile and blood glucose, post-stroke rehabilitation, fall prevention, liver fat content, preoperative fitness, cognitive, psychological and mental health, executive functions, and quality of sleep.
High-intensity interval training was either superior or at least non-inferior compared to moderate-intensity continuous training in improving health outcomes in patients with diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2, obesity, coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, post-MI syndrome, heart transplantation, cancer, chronic heart failure, coronary artery bypass surgery, arrhythmias, stroke, atherosclerosis, prehypertension, hypertension, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Parkinson’s disease, musculoskeletal disorders, metabolic syndrome, polycystic ovary syndrome, schizophrenia, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, spinal cord injury, Alzheimer’s disease, anxiety, eating and stress disorders, chronic pain syndromes, as well as several cancers including lung, breast, bladder, rectal, liver, rectal, and testicular.
Nevertheless, the included reviews reported heterogeneity in populations and protocols. Future research should focus on standardizing HIIT protocols, clarifying the minimum effective dose, and evaluating safety and feasibility in vulnerable groups. Additionally, large-scale, long-term randomized trials are needed to assess sustained effects on health outcomes. Practitioners and educators are encouraged to incorporate evidence-based HIIT programs with appropriate supervision and individualized intensity adjustments.
In summary, high-intensity interval training is a powerful stimulus triggering numerous physiological adaptations that can have a significant impact on outcomes in patients with various cardiovascular, respiratory, metabolic, neurologic, oncologic, pain-related conditions.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/jcm14238328/s1, Table S1. AMSTAR-2 analysis of included studies.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.V.; methodology, D.V., writing—original draft preparation, D.V.; writing—review and editing, D.V., Y.R., M.A., M.F.; data extraction: M.A.,S.K.; visualization, M.A., funding acquisition, D.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported in part by Nazarbayev University Faculty Development Competitive Research Grant No. SOM2024005(DV).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Karina Tapinova for her assistance with data extraction at the very initial stage of this project.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The authors have no other relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript apart from those disclosed.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
HIIThigh-intensity interval training
VO2max maximal oxygen uptake
HRheart rate
BPblood pressure
AE(s)adverse event(s)
QoLquality of life
CADcoronary artery disease
HFheart failure
MImyocardial infarction
BMIbody mass index
HTNhypertension
T2DMtype 2 diabetes mellitus
SBPsystolic blood pressure
DBPdiastolic blood pressure
BGblood glucose
GLUT-4glucose transporter type 4
WCwaist circumference
EPOCexcess post-exercise oxygen consumption
eNOSendothelial nitric oxide synthase
NOnitric oxide
ROSreactive oxygen species
LVEFleft ventricular ejection fraction

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Figure 1. Health benefits of HIIT. Abbreviations: QoL—quality of life, CVD—cardiovascular disease, SBP-Systolic Blood Pressure, BP-Blood Pressure, HR—heart rate, LVEF—Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction, CV—cardiovascular, VO2 max-Maximal Oxygen Consumption, PSA—Prostate-Specific Antigen, HbA1c-Glycated Hemoglobin, BMI-Body Mass Index.
Figure 1. Health benefits of HIIT. Abbreviations: QoL—quality of life, CVD—cardiovascular disease, SBP-Systolic Blood Pressure, BP-Blood Pressure, HR—heart rate, LVEF—Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction, CV—cardiovascular, VO2 max-Maximal Oxygen Consumption, PSA—Prostate-Specific Antigen, HbA1c-Glycated Hemoglobin, BMI-Body Mass Index.
Jcm 14 08328 g001
Table 1. Study characteristics.
Table 1. Study characteristics.
Author, CitationStudy DesignStudy GoalsN of Patients Included in the AnalysisTotal Number of Studies Included in the Meta-AnalysisDiagnosisComorbiditiesStudy Conclusions
[117]SRCardiac autonomic responses1936Healthy, CAD, CHD, MetS-Augmented parasympathetic and/or sympathetic modulation
[106]SR + MAVO2max2956COPD-HIIT is similar in improving VO2max in comparison with traditional exercises
[84]SRExecutive function72024Healthy-HIIT improves executive function
[21]SRCognitive and psychological outcomes6528Healthy teenagers-HIIT improves cognitive and psychological health in young people
[40]SRBody composition, muscle strength, physical function6158Healthy-HIIT improves body composition and muscle strength
[115]MAAnthropometric outcomes 122248Overweight, obese, healthy -Comparable results between HIIT and MIIT
[54]SR + MAQoL, VO2max3759Stroke-HIIT enhanced post-stroke rehabilitation and VO2max
[15]SR + MA VO2max, QoL1297 in qualitative review, 5 in meta-analysisHeart failure (HF)-Comparable advantages of HIIT inVO2 peak, QoL, LVEF
[45]SR + MASV, blood volume, hematocrit, VO2max94645Overweight, obesity, COPD, schizophrenia, HF, CAD, MetS, T2DM-HIIT improves VO2max, and consequently blood parameters
[16]SR + MAVO2max40419CAD, HF-More effective results of HIT in HF than CAD patients
[2]SR + MACardio- and metabolic outcomes216465Overweight, obese, healthy patients-Improvement of short-term and long-term HIIT on VO2max in healthy adults
[81]SR + MABP, insulin resistance, intrahepatic fat303354Overweight or obesityHTN, T2DM, Metabolic syndrome, NAFLD, Dyslipidaemia, NASHHIIT improves cardiometabolic outcomes
[52]SR + MAHR, VO2max, glucose, BP, insulin, insulin resistance70711Healthy children-HIIT improved exercise capacity and glucose levels
[101]SR + MAVO2max48015Health and unhealthy-HIIT improves VO2max
[61]SR + MAVO2max43818Healthy-Sprint interval exercise improves VO2max
[66]SR + MAVO2max, QoL, exercise capacity, cardiac parameters51511HF-HIIT improves VO2max and exercise capacity
[108]SR + MAEfficacy, safety22811 articles describing 7 studiesMS-Safety and efficacy of HIIT
[109]MACRF56317Healthy minors aged < 18-Favorable outcome for CRF in HIIT than MICT
[67]SR + MAVO2max, BP, body composition, glucose, insulin, insulin resistance, lipid profile32512Children with overweight, obesity-HIIT improves VO2max, and SBP
[49]SR + MALipid profile, blood glucose, insulin, insulin resistance53818Children with MetSObesity, overweight, asthma, NAFLDHIIT improves lipid profile and blood glucose
[62]SR + MABP26610HTNParkinson, urology, HFHIIT decreases BP
[33]SR + MABody composition, HR, BP, CRP3808MSK disorders-HIIT affected only heart rate
[39]SR + MAVO2max, fatigue, inflammatory markers2156Prostate cancer-HIIT improves VO2max, fatigue, PSA, but not inflammatory markers
[42]SRVO2max, blood lactate, creatine kinase24418Healthy-HIIT improves exercise capacity
[88]SR + MAVO2max, heart rate2125Heart transplantation-HIIT improves VO2max and heart rate
[120]SR + MABP, VO2max1439 in qualitative review, meta-analysis: 9 for VO2max, 7 for BPPre-HTN, HTNCHF, CHD, MetS, abdominal obesity, pre-T2DMNo difference in BP at rest, improved VO2max
[37]SR + MAPain, VO2max, QoL53013MSK disorders-HIIT decreases pain, improves VO2max, but not QoL
[113]SRBG325 (drop-out 182)5T2DM-No sufficient evidence
[125]SR + MAFunctional capacity and cardiometabolic outcomes1847 in qualitative review, 5 in meta-analysisPre- and T2DM-More favorable functional capacity of HIIT but comparable cardiometabolic outcomes of HIIT and MICT
[48]SRGlucose, inflammatory markers, lipid profile16814T2DM, T1DM-HIIT improves glycemic control
[32]SR + MAExercise capacity, BP, VO2max5699HTN-HIIT is superior to moderate intensity exercise in improving VO2max
[112]SRBody composition, CRF1366Overweight -Favorable effect of HIIT on body composition
[79]SR + MATestosterone and cortisol89060Healthy-Testosterone and cortisol increase immediately and return to baseline in one day
[93]SR + MABody composition95938FemalesOverweight, obesity, T2DM, PCOS, dislipidemia, rheumatic disease, metabolic syndromeHIIT helps reducing weight and fat
[63]SR + MABP, HR158338HTN-HIIT decreases BP worse than isometric exercise training, but better reduces HR
[68]SRFall risk factors, physical activity, QoL32811Healthy-HIIT is safe and effective in fall prevention
[134]MAVO2 peak2296CAD (CABG, AP, MI, PCI)-More favorable outcome for VO2max and anaerobic threshold in HIIT
[73]SRAnthropometric and CVS parameters, lung function, cardiorespiratory
fitness, asthma symptoms and control, QoL		8417Asthma-HIIT improved FEV1 and oxygen consumption
[75]SR + MAPain-free walking distance and oxygen consumption113219Lower extremity PAD-HIIT was less effective in walking distance than light-to-moderate PA, but more effective in maximal oxygen consumption
[70]SR + MAPulmonary function, dyspnea, QoL, adverse events, VO2max68912COPD-HIIT improves pulmonary function, QoL, dyspnea, VO2max
[130]SR + MACardiometabolic outcomes and VO2max2749Overweight and obese children < 18-More favorable outcome in BP and VO2max for HIIT
[36]SR + MAPulmonary function, VO2max, muscle strength39912CF-HIIT improves VO2max, muscle strength, but not lung function
[127]SR + MAVO2max, QoL60912CAD-Improved VO2max for HIIT, but no difference in QoL
[122]SR + MAVO2max41113HFREF-Superiority of HIIT over MICT in VO2max
[41]SR + MASeverity of depression and anxiety51512CAD, angina, arrhythmias, HF, HTN, stroke, MI, atherosclerosis, CMP, Parkinson-HIIT improves depression, but not anxiety
[51]SR + MABody composition, VO2max, glucose, insulin2309Overweight, obesity-HIIT and fasting improve glucose
[43]SR + MAVO2max, exercise capacity84655Healthy-HIIT improves exercise capacity
[124]SR + MACRF, AE95317CAD (MI, PCI, CABG, PTCA)-Improved CRF in HIIT group. No difference in AE
[28]SR + MASafety, VO2max11711Parkinson-HIIT is safe, improves VO2max and motor functions
[135]SR + MAVO2 peak, LVEF1687HFREF-Higher effectiveness of HIIT than MICT on VO2max improvement
[72]SR + MAVO2max3058Lung cancer-Favorable effects of HIIT on oxygen consumption
[91]SRExecutive function, heart rate, VO2max122323Healthy children and adults-HIIT improves cognitive executive functions
[74]SR + MAWeight, BMI, fat percentage, oxygen consumption12910All adultsDiabetes, overweight, obeseDiet and HIIT reduce weight and fat
[53]SR + MAExercise enjoyment67525Healthy-Participants enjoyed sprint exercises comparable to HIIT
[29]SR + MAAppetite16913Healthy-Both HIIT and moderate exercise reduced appetite
[131]MAT2DM-related outcomes, weight, CRF203550 (36 controlled, 14 one-group)Healthy, sedentary, overweight, obeseT2DM, MetS, HF, CAD, MI, angina, schizophrenia, cancerFavorable effects of HIIT on insulin resistance, fasting glucose and HbA1c levels, body weight, and CRF
[99]SRVO2max25915HF, COPD, T2DM, CAD, cancer-HIIT can improve VO2max similar to moderate-intensity exercise
[94]SR + MAInflammatory markers84129Overweight, obesity, T2DM, PCOS, metabolic syndrome, NAFLD-HIIT decreases inflammatory markers
[83]SR + MALiver fat percentage33310Overweight or obesityCAD, NAFLD, T2DMHIIT improves liver fat content
[34]SR + MAVascular function143736Overweight, obesity, MetS, T2DM, T1DM, PCOS, HTN, HF, CAD, MI, heart transplant, ToF, cancer-HIIT improves vascular function
[50]SR + MABlood glucose, insulin46730MetSOverweight, obesity, T2DMHIIT improves insulin and glucose responses
[56]SR + MAGlucose, insulin87025T2DM, HTN, obesity, NAFLD, overweight-HIIT improves glucose and insulin levels
[20]SR + MASafety, VO2max, body composition, psychological health, QoL3669Severe mental illness-HIIT shows adherence, is safe, decreases depression, improves VO2max
[57]SR + MAVO2max, BP, body composition, knee strength, HR, lipid profile47613Healthy-Aquatic HIIT improves body composition, lipid profile, vitals, knee strength, and VO2max
[19]SR + MACognitive and mental health209222Children-HIIT can improve cognitive and mental health
[100]SR + MABlood pressure, VO2max26915HTNHF, obesity, overweight, CAD, metabolic syndromeHIIT decreases blood pressure. It is superior to moderate intensity exercise in improving VO2max
[64]SRBody composition, inflammatory markers2587T2DM-HIIT decreases inflammatory marker levels
[65]SR + MAVO2max, lipid profile, QoL, cardiac parameters4658HF, MI, ToF-HIIT and moderate intensity exercises improve VO2max
[69]SR + MALipid profile, body composition, insulin resistance, VO2max,70419Obese children-Aerobic exercises reduce the risk of CVD, mixed exercises reduces the risk of diabetes
[30]SR + MABP, HR, VO2max44213HTN-HIIT better decreases SBP at daytime than moderate exercise
[132]MAVO2max and CV outcomes47210CAD-Improved mean VO2max in HIIT group
[119]SR + MAT2DM control, CRF34513T2DM-Superiority of HIIT over MICT or no training on body composition, VO2peak, and HbA1c level
[98]SR + MAVO2max, body composition, blood pressure, lipid profile, blood glucose3099Childhood obesity-HIIT improves VO2max, body composition, and blood pressure
[105]SR + MABody composition, cardiopulmonary parameters54810T2DMHTN, obesity, renal diseases, cardiovascular diseasesHIIT improves body composition and cardiopulmonary outcomes
[59]SR + Network MABP, BMI, HR84612HTN-Moderate intensity exercise lowers BP better than HIIT. HIIT better improves exercise capacity
[126]MABody adiposity61739Healthy, overweight, obese, sedentary adults,Pre- and T2DM, MetS, PMW, NAFLD, PCOS, rheumatic diseaseReduction in HIIT of visceral, abdominal, and total fat
[90]SR + MAVO2max141729MI-HIIT improves VO2max
[97]SR + MAVO2max120118Overweight, obesity teenagers-HIIT improves VO2max
[103]Meta-reviewVO2max, body composition, blood glucose, blood pressure, inflammatory markers, exercise capacity, cognitive and mental health, QoL, safety, adherence1956633DM, metabolic syndrome, HF, CAD, COPD-HIIT is beneficial for physical and mental health, its adherence is high, and it is safe
[104]SR + MAVO2max, mental health, body composition, inflammatory markers, QoL, adverse events36012Mental illness: anxiety, eating, stress disorders-HIIT improves physical and mental health
[17]SR + MAEffects of HIIT on psychological and physical illness, including sleep290153General populationCardiometabolic disorders COPD, Cancer, stroke, Crohn’s disease, Cutaneous systemic sclerosis, and liver resection.Beneficial effects of HIIT on physical and mental health
[47]SR + MAVO2max, glucose, weight, glycemic control, insulin, insulin resistance70819T2DMMetabolic syndrome, obesity, NAFLDHIIT improves glycemic control and insulin resistance
[31]SR + MABlood glucose15515T1DM-Inconsistent effects on blood glucose
[78]SR + MABody composition, lipid profile, blood glucose4229Overweight or obesity, HTN, dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, insulin resistance-HIIT improves body composition, lab analyses, and exercise capacity
[133]SR + MAVO2max 72328Healthy -Higher improvement in VO2max in after HIIT than endurance training
[17]SR + MAPrimary: sleep quality
Secondary: anxiety, depression and health-related QoL		75521All adultsRA, CKD, testicular cancer, prostate cancer, overweight, obesity, sleep apnea, depression, insomnia, Parkinson, axial spinal arthritis, drug use disordersHIIT improves sleep
[85]SR + network MABody composition, fat percentage477432Obesity-Aerobic with resistance training can improve body composition
[24]SR + MAPhysical well-being and health outcomes44812CancerVarious cancer typesComparably favorable effect of HIIT and MIE; superiority of HIIT over UC for VO2max
[121]SR + MAEmotional outcomes 1568Active, sedentary -Favorable emotional outcomes of HIIT
[89]SR + MASafety, VO2max8968Cancer: lung, breast, bladder, rectal, liver-HIIT is beneficial and safe
[25]SR + MAFasting glucose, glycemic control, insulin resistance, body composition, lipid profile, BP, VO2max695T2DM-HIIT improves glycemic control, insulin resistance, body composition, VO2max, and lipid profile
[123]SR + MAVO2peak, hemodynamic outcomes1183Heart transplant recipients-Increased peak HR and VO2max following 8–12 week HIIT
[92]
[22]SR + MAPeak VO2max14516spinal cord injury-HIIT is beneficial for CVS health, but not superior to other exercises
[80]SR + MACardiorespiratory parameters52321T2DM-HIIT improves cardiorespiratory parameters
[13]SR + MAVO2max42914Healthy-HIIT improves fitness
[107]SR + MAIntermittent claudication, VO2max3509 articles describing 8 studiesPeripheral arterial disease-Improvement in distance walked and VO2max
[12]SR + MAQoL, AEs, vitals, peak VO2max, LVEF, LVEDV3878Post-MI-HIIT is safe and improves exercise capacity
[10]SR + MAVascular outcomes1827HF, MetS, HTN, T2DM, PMW, obese -Enhanced function of BAVF following 12 week or longer HIIT
[14]SR + MABody fat, VO2max78426Overweight or obesity-HIIT was less effective than moderate exercise in increasing VO2max
[71]SR + MALiver fat74519T2DM, NAFLD, obesity, liver steatosis-HIIT improves liver fat content similar to moderate intensity exercise
[26]SR + MAEndothelial function2088Overweight, obesity-HIIT improves endothelial function
[9]SR + MAInsulin resistance, BMI4237PCOS-HIIT improve insulin resistance and BMI
[38]SRQoL, VO2max3795CABG patientsCAD, MIHIIT improves QoL and VO2max
[44]SR + MABody composition, VO2max, lipid profile, blood glucose65722HealthyObesity, sarcopeniaHIIT improves body composition, but is less effective in improving VO2max in comparison with traditional exercise
[8]SR + MABody composition parameters, lipid profile, fasting glucose, blood pressure41410Metabolic syndrome-HIIT improves blood pressure, blood glucose levels, and body composition
[23]SR + MAPeak VO2max3845oncological resections-HIIT improves preop fitness
[11]SR + MAChanges in BMI, fat percentage, cardiometabolic risk factors, heart rate, oxygen consumption51211ChildrenOverweight, obesityHIIT improves cholesterol profile and cardiometabolic parameters in children
[27]SR + MAFunctional movement85118HTN, obesity, Alzheimer, COPD, CAD, HF, CAD-HIIT improves functional movement
[114]MACVD outcomes62022Overweight/obese -Improved body composition, TC, VO2max in HIIT group
[7]SR + MABody composition, VO2max142247Overweight, obesityT2DM, Down syndrome, MetS, NAFLD, cancerImprovement in VO2max, but not body composition
[86]SRVO2max63912Breast cancer-HIIT improves cardiorespiratory fitness
[118]SR + MALVEF107818HFREF-Superiority of 2- 3-month HIIT on improving LVEF
[95]SR + MAVO2max, safety51612Cancer: liver, lung, rectal, bladder, breast, testicular-HIIT improves VO2max
[76]SR + MAPeak VO2max54319Overweight, obesityNAFLD, T2DMHIIT improves cardiorespiratory fitness
[46]SR + MAVO2max, LVEF66415CAD, HF-HIIT improves VO2max and LVEF
[111]SR + MACentral arterial stiffness, 24 h BP49116Any health status-Reduction in diastolic BP at night in HIIT versus MICT
[35]SR + MAVO2max1949Healthy-HIIT improved VO2max in normoxia and hypoxia
[128]SR + MABody composition42413Overweight/obese adults aged 18–45-Comparable slight improvement in body composition (but not weight)
[116]SRCV outcomes111723CAD (MI, PCI, CABG)-Low risk of CV AE following HIIT
[11]SRVO2max, mobility1406Stroke-Improved VO2max and mobility compared to baseline but not to MICT
[102]SR + MALipid profile, heart rate, VO2max79126HTN, overweight, obesity-HIIT and moderate exercise are similar in improving lipid profile. HIIT is superior to moderate exercise in improving HDL
[82]SR + MAVO2max, body composition, metabolic parameters115629Older patients-HIIT was beneficial at improving fitness
[129]SR + MAVO2max73621Cardiac patients-Improved VO2 peak
[60]SR + MAEndothelial function2219Healthy-Aerobic function improves endothelial function
[58]SR and MAVO2max52010CHD, HF-HIIT improves VO2max and QoL
[55]SR + MAVO2max94922CAD, HF, MI, heart transplant-HIIT improves VO2max
[87]SR + MALipid profile, restenosis, cardiopulmonary parameters2476CAD-HIIT improves cardiopulmonary parameters, but not heart rate
[77]SR + MAPeak VO2max, HR, body composition48811Obesity-HIIT reduces fat and BMI
[96]SRVO2max, body composition, exercise performance6768116ObesityHF, T2DMHIIT improves VO2max and body composition
[136]SRPhysical fitness and functional capacity83413Fibromyalgia-Combined training programs are the most effective for patients with fibromyalgia
[137]SR + MAVO2max, AE, pain, and QoL93812Cancer-related fatiguePain related to cancerHIIT and combined HIIT can reduce pain and cancer-related fatigue
[138]SR + MAVO2max, AE, pain, and QoL89210Knee osteoarthritis -HIIT have comparable effects with low-intensity training
Abbreviations: AE—adverse event, BAVF–bronchial artery vascular function, BG—blood glucose, BMI–body mass index, BP—blood pressure, CABG—coronary artery bypass graft, CAD—coronary artery disease, CF—cystic fibrosis, CHD—chronic heart disease, CKD—chronic kidney disease, CMP—cardiomyopathy, COPD—chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, CRF—cardiorespiratory fitness, CRP—C-reactive protein, CV—cardiovascular, CVD—cardiovascular disease, HF—heart failure, HIIT-high-intensity interval training, HR–heart rate, HTN—hypertension, LVEDV-left ventricular end-diastolic volume, LVEF-left ventricular ejection fraction, MA–meta-analysis, MetS—metabolic syndrome, MI—myocardial infarction, MS—multiple sclerosis, MSK—musculoskeletal, N—number, NAFLD—non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, PA–physical activity, PAD–peripheral artery disease, PCOS—polycystic ovary syndrome, PMW—postmenopausal women, QoL–quality of life, RA–rheumatoid arthritis, SBP–systolic blood pressure, SR—systematic review, T1DM–type 1 diabetes mellitus, T2DM—type 2 diabetes mellitus, TC—total cholestretol, ToF–tetralogy of Fallot.
Table 2. Mechanisms and direction of effects of included studies.
Table 2. Mechanisms and direction of effects of included studies.
Included Study CategoryReported Mechanism and Frequency (If Reported)Direction
[117]CardiometabolicParasympathetic and/or sympathetic modulation.Positive
[106]CardiometabolicPhysiological mimicry and lower dynamic hyperinflation.Comparable
[84]NeurologicRaising of H2O2 and TNF-α activates PGC-1α, which promotes brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) synthesis. Prefrontal cortex activation. Alterations in lactate and catecholamine levels.Positive
[21]NeurologicReported best intervals: 4–16 weeks, for 8–30 min/session, psychosocial mechanism: ability to improve self-concept, self-esteem, cognitive ability, and self-perception in youth.Positive
[40]CardiometabolicReported no differences between training 1, 2, or 3 days per week. The mechanism involves axonal regeneration for muscle growth promotion.Comparable
[115]MetabolicDecreases body mass.Comparable
[54]CardiometabolicIncreased oxygen uptake.Positive
[15]CardiometabolicIncreased oxygen uptake.Comparable
[45]CardiometabolicAdaptations in central oxygen transport and/or peripheral oxygen extraction.Positive
[16]CardiometabolicThe maximum benefits are between weeks 6 and 12. The mechanism involves increased oxygen uptake.Positive
[2]CardiometabolicDuration for at least 12 weeks. Increased baroreflex-mediated modulation of the sinoatrial node.Positive
[81]CardiometabolicImprovement in insulin sensitivity, glucose uptake, mitochondrial lipid oxidation, and arterial flexibility.Positive
[52]CardiometabolicAt least 5 days duration (for children). Neuromuscular exercises (sit-ups and push-ups) are the most effective for adolescents.Positive
[101]CardiometabolicPeripheral muscle and central cardiorespiratory adaptationPositive
[61]CardiometabolicDuration is more than 2 weeks. Increased oxygen uptake.Positive
[66]CardiometabolicPeripheral mechanisms that lead to ameliorated oxygen utilization by skeletal muscles.Positive
[108]CardiometabolicCan improve insulin sensitivity and blood pressure.Positive
[109]CardiometabolicMitochondrial adaptations, increases in citrate synthase maximal activity, type Ⅱ fiber activation, adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase activity, and central adaptationPositive
[67]CardiometabolicThe increased translocation of GLUT-4 to the plasma membrane and the activation of AMP-activated kinase (AMPK). Increased blood flow velocity, elevated nitric oxide (NO) level in endothelial cells, and increased nitric oxide are dependent on peripheral vascular compliance.Positive
[49]MetabolicGlycolipid metabolism promotion.Positive
[62]CardiometabolicBlood pressure reduction.Comparable
[33]MetabolicIncreased oxygen uptake.Comparable
[39]OncologicMiddle- to long-term physiological adaptation, adaptation to high physiological load, increased oxidative enzyme activities, mitochondrial biogenesis, and angiogenesis, activation of AMPK-PGC1α than CAMK-PGC1α (cell stimuli), stimulation of glycogen synthesisPositive (but is not considered novel)
[42]CardiometabolicUnder partial Blood flow restriction occlusion, different haemodynamic and vascular responses are elicited to control the changes in blood flow and alterations in oxygen deliveryPositive
[88]CardiometabolicRecommended 4 min at high intensity. The mechanism involves increased oxygen uptake.Positive
[120]CardiometabolicIncreased oxygen uptake.Comparable
[37]Pain-related outcomeMuscular adaptations (mitochondrial biogenesis and increased intramuscular capillarisation), vascular adaptations (increased blood cell volume), and cardiac adaptations (increased cardiac output and contractility).Comparable
[113]Metabolic Increase insulin sensitivity.Not concluded
[125]Metabolic Improves functional capacity.Comparable
[48]Metabolic Increased GLUT-4 in the plasma membrane, improved uptake of muscle glucose, and an increase in the activity of glycolytic and oxidative enzymes.Positive
[32]CardiometabolicIncreased oxygen uptake.Positive
[112]CardiometabolicThe reported duration is 6–24 weeks with 2–3 sessions per week. Increased metabolic and cardiorespiratory stress.Positive
[79]Metabolic Testosterone and cortisol increase immediately after a single HIIT session, then drop below baseline levels, and finally return to baseline values after 24 h. Genomic and non-genomic androgen action. Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis activation.Not applicable. The study tested how HIIT increases levels of hormones.
[93]Metabolic Increased catecholamine production, leading to significant lipolysis during exercise, followed by higher post-exercise fat oxidation.Positive
[63]CardiometabolicDecreased resting blood pressurePositive
[68]NeurologicOptimal periods are 12 weeks, 2 sessions a week.Positive
[134]CardiometabolicImprovement in anaerobic threshold.Positive
[73]CardiometabolicIncreased oxygen uptake.Positive
[75]CardiometabolicA personalized approach may lead to greater improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness.Depends on a personalized approach
[70]CardiometabolicCan improve pulmonary functionPositive
[130]CardiometabolicAdaptations in muscles’ mitochondrial enzymes, improved ability to extract and use available oxygen.Positive
[36]CardiometabolicImproving respiratory muscle function, but not the lung function.Positive
[127]CardiometabolicIncreased oxygen uptake.Comparable
[122]CardiometabolicIncreased oxygen uptake.Comparable
[41]CardiometabolicReduces inflammation, enhances neurogenesis via increased BDNF, improves hormonal balance by elevating monoamines and regulating the HPA axis, and decreases oxidative stress by boosting antioxidant defenses.Positive
[51]Metabolic Increased aerobic capacity.Positive
[43]CardiometabolicIncrease in cross-bridge cycling and Ca2+ movement, elevation of adenosine monophosphate and activation of adenosine monophosphate kinase, which boosts proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α) expression, leading to enhanced mitochondrial adaptations.Positive
[124]CardiometabolicImproves cardiorespiratory fitness.Comparable
[28]NeurologicRecommended up to 12 weeks duration. May increase BDNF and cardiorespiratory fitness.Positive
[135]CardiometabolicIncreased oxygen uptake.Positive
[72]OncologicImproves cardiorespiratory fitness.Positive
[91]NeurologicImproves cerebral oxygenation, arousal, and neuroendocrine responses.Positive
[74]CardiometabolicDecreases insulin in combination with a ketogenic diet.Positive
[53]CardiometabolicPsychological changes, motivation.Comparable
[29]MetabolicCan decrease acylated ghrelin and may suppress hunger.Positive
[131]MetabolicReduction in fasting glucose.Positive
[99]CardiometabolicImproves cardiorespiratory fitness.Positive
[94]MetabolicImproves circulating TNF-α, leptin and adiponectinPositive
[83]MetabolicReduces liver fat.Positive
[34]CardiometabolicIncreased NO bioavailability, antioxidant capacity, anti-inflammatory effects, and increased abundance of endothelial progenitor cells.Positive
[50]MetabolicReduces postprandial glucose.Positive
[56]MetabolicReduces postprandial glucose.Comparable
[20]NeurologicImproves mood.Positive
[57]CardiometabolicThe hydrostatic pressure in the water created by resistance in movement at high speed promotes muscle action. High speeds promote the recruitment of type II fast-twitch muscle fibers.Positive
[19]NeurologicBrain-derived neurotrophic factor and catecholamines induced by exercise may improve cognitive performance.Positive
[100]CardiometabolicIncreased oxygen uptake.Positive
[64]Metabolic No change in inflammatory biomarkers, reduction in the values of weight and abdominal fat.Positive
[65]CardiometabolicImproves endothelial progenitor cells function, the structure of coronary arteries, and establishes collateral circulation, thereby increasing blood flow and myocardial support. It can regulate vascular tension, improve arterial compliance, and lower the patient’s blood pressure at rest. It can control mood swings, improve negative emotions, maintain the body’s energy balance, and reduce fat accumulation.Positive
[69]CardiometabolicIt can promote free fatty acids in the blood to enter the cells. Improves the activities of lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase in the muscle and liver. Can decrease leptin, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-6. Can improve the expression of the uncoupling protein-3 mRNA in the skeletal muscle and the catecholamine level to promote the metabolism level of adipose.Positive
[30]CardiometabolicPromotes nitric oxide production by endothelial cells.Comparable
[132]CardiometabolicImproves resting heart rate and oxygen uptake.Positive
[119]CardiometabolicChanges in hemoglobin A1c and 2 h glucose.Positive
[98]CardiometabolicFavors fat utilization during the recovery period.Positive
[105]CardiometabolicChanges in hemoglobin A1c and average glucose.Positive
[59]CardiometabolicIncreased oxygen uptake.Depends on a personalized approach
[126]MetabolicReduces whole body adiposity.Positive
[90]CardiometabolicImproves cardiometabolic fitnessPositive
[97]CardiometabolicLong-term and short-term HIIT are similarly effective. Improves cardiorespiratory fitness.Positive
[103]NeurologicImprovements in anxiety and depression Positive
[104]NeurologicImprovements in motor skills and mental health outcomes.Positive
[18]NeurologicModerate improvements in mental well-being. Positive
[46]CardiometabolicImprovement in glycemic control and insulin resistance.Positive
[31]MetabolicDecreases blood glucose.Inconsistent
[78]CardiometabolicNot reported.Positive
[133]CardiometabolicIncreased oxygen uptake.Positive
[17]NeurologicSmall increase in slow-wave sleep (SWS) and total sleep time (TST). Positive
[87]MetabolicPost-exercise oxy-gen consumption and fat beta-oxidation.Positive
[24]OncologicNot reported.Comparable
[121]NeurologicNot reported.Positive
[89]Oncologic Increased oxygen uptake.Positive
[25]CardiometabolicTotal cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein and triglycerides blood lipid metabolismPositive
[123]CardiometabolicRecommended 8–12 weeks. Improved the cardiocirculatory function, stimulating the sinus node faster.Positive
[92]CardiometabolicPassive recovery improves performance.Positive
[22]CardiometabolicNot reported.Positive
[80]CardiometabolicNot reported.Positive
[13]Cardiometabolic Improves cardiorespiratory fitness.Positive
[107]Cardiometabolic Increased oxygen uptake.Positive
[12]CardiometabolicLowers blood pressure and increases oxygen uptake.Positive
[10]CardiometabolicEffects on oxidative stress, inflammation, and insulin sensitivity.Positive
[14]CardiometabolicNot reported.Positive
[71]MetabolicEnhances cardiorespiratory fitness, mitochondrial function, and fat metabolism.Comparable
[26]CardiometabolicImproves endothelial function.Positive
[9]MetabolicPromotes translocation of GLUT-4 receptors inside the cell of the membrane, facilitates the diffusion of plasma glucose into striated muscle tissue and adipocytes without the need for insulin action.Positive
[38]CardiometabolicNot reportedComparable
[44]CardiometabolicImproves stretch-shortening cycles that favor recruitment of type 2 muscle fibers and thereby promote muscle hypertrophyComparable
[8]MetabolicGreater fat oxidation, and changes in appetite and satiety.Positive
[23]OncologicNot reported.Not significant
[11]CardiometabolicImproves total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides levels in children.Positive
[27]NeurologicAdaptations to increased oxygen uptake.Comparable
[114]CardiometabolicImproves cardiorespiratory fitness and increase in skeletal muscle mitochondrial respiration.Comparable
[7]CardiometabolicImproves cardiorespiratory fitness.Comparable
[86]OncologicIncreases lower body muscle mass, endothelial function, can reduce interleukin-6 biomarker.Positive
[118]CardiometabolicNot reported.Comparable
[95]OncologicIncreased oxygen uptake.Comparable
[76]CardiometabolicIncreases stroke volume and ejection fraction of the heart induced by enhanced left ventricular systolic function, increases peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ-coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) and glucose transporters following, induces improved mitochondrial function.Unclear
[46]CardiometabolicImproves mitochondrial function at the molecular level.Positive
[111]CardiometabolicDecreases blood pressure.Positive
[35]CardiometabolicHypoxic stimuli improve HHIT effectiveness. Positive
[128]MetabolicDecreases whole body fat.Comparable
[116]CardiometabolicNot reported.Positive
[11]CardiometabolicNot reported.Positive
[102]MetabolicNot reportedComparable
[82]CardiometabolicImproves cardiorespiratory fitness.Positive
[129]CardiometabolicIncreases oxygen uptake.Positive
[60]CardiometabolicRecommends 8 weeks. Improves endothelial function. Positive
[58]CardiometabolicIncreases cardiac pumping function and improves cardiopulmonary exchange function.Positive
[55]CardiometabolicImproves cardiorespiratory fitness.Positive
[87]CardiometabolicImproves cardiopulmonary function.Comparable
[77]MetabolicReduces body fat percentage.Positive
[96]MetabolicIncreased oxygen uptake.Positive
[136]Pain-related outcomeMinimum 14 weeks is recommended. Modulation of the HPA axis and increased serotonin, norepinephrine and endogenous opioid activity, enhancing pain-inhibitory pathways.Positive
[137]OncologicNot reported Positive
[138]Pain-related outcomeNot reportedComparable
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MDPI and ACS Style

Viderman, D.; Rakhmanov, Y.; Aubakirova, M.; Kalikanov, S.; Fredericson, M. The Impact of High-Intensity Interval Training on Cardiometabolic, Neurologic, Oncologic, and Pain-Related Outcomes: A Comprehensive Review of Systematic Reviews. J. Clin. Med. 2025, 14, 8328. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14238328

AMA Style

Viderman D, Rakhmanov Y, Aubakirova M, Kalikanov S, Fredericson M. The Impact of High-Intensity Interval Training on Cardiometabolic, Neurologic, Oncologic, and Pain-Related Outcomes: A Comprehensive Review of Systematic Reviews. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2025; 14(23):8328. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14238328

Chicago/Turabian Style

Viderman, Dmitriy, Yeltay Rakhmanov, Mina Aubakirova, Sultan Kalikanov, and Michael Fredericson. 2025. "The Impact of High-Intensity Interval Training on Cardiometabolic, Neurologic, Oncologic, and Pain-Related Outcomes: A Comprehensive Review of Systematic Reviews" Journal of Clinical Medicine 14, no. 23: 8328. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14238328

APA Style

Viderman, D., Rakhmanov, Y., Aubakirova, M., Kalikanov, S., & Fredericson, M. (2025). The Impact of High-Intensity Interval Training on Cardiometabolic, Neurologic, Oncologic, and Pain-Related Outcomes: A Comprehensive Review of Systematic Reviews. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 14(23), 8328. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14238328

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