Working towards an ERAS Protocol for Pancreatic Transplantation: A Narrative Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Why Is an ERAS Pathway So Important for Pancreatic Transplantation?
3. Preoperative ERAS Components
3.1. Preoperative Education
3.2. Prehabilitation and Weight Loss
3.3. Preoperative Cardiac Assessment
3.4. Preoperative Vascular Assessment
4. Intra-Operative ERAS Components
4.1. Antibiotics Prophylaxis
4.2. Operative Techniques
4.3. Enteric vs. Bladder Drainage
4.4. Analgesia
4.5. Nasogastric Intubation
4.6. Fluid Therapy
5. Anti-Coagulation
- All patients should be offered preoperative hypercoagulability screening due to the high prevalence of hypercoagulable mutations in patients with allograft thrombosis compared to the general population [131]. These patients will need a particularly effective anticoagulation regimen.
- Regular preoperative, intra-operative and postoperative monitoring of coagulation through thromboelastography (TEG). TEG allows rapid, real-time assessment of both clot formation as well as fibrinolysis making it ideal for titration of anticoagulation in the perioperative period [141,142]. In a retrospective study, Gopal et al. demonstrated that there was reduced bleeding (18% vs. 45%, p = 0.05) and reduced length of hospital stay (18 vs. 31 days, p = 0.03) in anticoagulation titrated using TEG vs. standard coagulation tests (prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time), respectively [137].
- Regular preoperative monitoring of platelet function through the collagen-epinephrine closure time (Col/Epi) and collagen-ADP assay (Col/ADP) could be beneficial, but more work is needed to evaluate their clinical value. Raveh et al., in their first of a kind study, assessed the impact of these platelet function tests on pancreatic allograft thrombosis; they found a strong association between platelet dysfunction and both allograft thrombosis and venous thrombosis severity score [135]. Lower arterial thrombosis severity scores were found in patients on aspirin, and abnormal platelet function assays were also found to be independently predictive of graft thrombosis in a multivariate analysis.
- Calculation of thrombosis risk from the donor, perioperative and recipient factors- systematic reviews and observations studies have identified multiple factors that may be associated with allograft thrombosis as mentioned before [103,129]. Each one by itself may not have a large effect, but their combination may greatly increase the risk of thrombosis. Raveh et al. proposed a minor scoring system for combining these factors, and this should be further improved with local factors [135].
- Imaging and grading of potential allograft thrombosis should be standardised per centre to ensure that anticoagulation is only increased when it likely to clinically benefit the patient. The large heterogeneity in thrombosis rates can be partially explained by the varying definition, with subclinical thrombi being included in these rates. For lower grades of arterial and venous thrombi, Hakeem et al. demonstrated that there were similar patient and graft survival in those therapeutically anticoagulated vs. conservative management with standard anticoagulation [130]. Reexploration for bleeding and length of stay was numerically higher although not statistically significant in the therapeutically anticoagulated group. Although a lack of blinding may introduce some bias into these findings, there may not be a benefit in anticoagulating all allograft thrombi, and prospective studies are needed to delineate which need higher doses of heparin.
6. Immunosuppression
7. Postoperative ERAS Components
7.1. Postoperative Nutrition
7.2. Post-Operative Nausea and Vomiting (PONV)
7.3. Gastroparesis
7.4. Postoperative Mobilisation
8. Future Directions
Machine Perfusion of Grafts
9. A Proposed ERAS Pathway
10. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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ERAS Component | Description | Strength of Recommendation | Level of Evidence |
---|---|---|---|
Informed consent | Vital to any surgery to keep the patient educated and invested in the process | Strong | NA |
Prehabilitation program | Physical exercise program while on the waiting list to improve cardiovascular reserve | Strong | 1b |
Weight loss advice | Aim to reduce postoperative complications due to obesity | Strong | 3b |
Cardiovascular assessment | Screening with electrocardiogram (ECG), transthoracic echocardiography (TTE), and functional and/or non-invasive imaging with the possibility of invasive coronary angiogram | Medium | 3b |
Iliac vessel assessment | Preoperative CT without contrast of iliac vessels to allow for operative planning | Strong | 3b |
Hypercoagulability screening | Preoperative screening to guide perioperative and postoperative anticoagulation | Strong | 3b |
Smoking cessation counselling | An effective program aimed to produce smoking cessation at least four weeks preoperatively | Strong | 1a |
Antibiotic prophylaxis | First generation cephalosporin prophylaxis with consideration of antifungal discontinued within 96 h | Strong | 1b |
Dexmedetomidine | Pre-induction single IV dose of dexmedetomidine for improved postoperative analgesia | Medium | 1b |
Graft position | Ipsilateral placement of kidney and pancreas graft in SPK transplantation if other recipient factors allow | Weak | 3b |
Operative instruments | Standardised procedure with the increased use of automated equipment to minimize operative time | Medium | 5 |
Consideration of gastroduodenal artery (GDA) reconstruction | Reduces bleeding risk and graft perfusion | Weak | 4 |
Machine perfusion | Possible future inclusion to rescue and monitor marginal grafts | Weak | 5 |
Enteric drainage | Reduced postoperative complications | Strong | 3b |
Need for induction therapy | Risk assessment algorithm to decide if the patient is high risk and would benefit from induction therapy | Strong | 3b |
Alemtuzumab induction therapy | Effective therapy with reduced length of stay (LOS) not requiring central access | Medium | 1b |
Platelet function analysis | Preoperative analysis with Col-Epi and Col-ADP assays for calculation of arterial thrombosis risk | Weak | 3b |
Thromboelastography (TEG) analysis | Rapid analysis of coagulation allowing titration of postoperative anticoagulation | Medium | 3b |
Standardised grading of graft thrombosis | Procedure for grading thrombosis on CT imaging allowing for standardized management | Medium | 4 |
Analgesia: local block | Transversus abdominis plane (TAP)/quadratus lumborum block inserted at the time of operation reducing opioid use and faster return of bowel function (ROBF) | Strong | 1b |
Paracetamol | Regular IV paracetamol in the immediate post-operative period as an adjunct to other analgesics | Strong | 1b |
Lidocaine patch | Consider topical 5% lidocaine patch to reduce pain around incision sites | Weak | 1b |
Fluid therapy | Avoid excessive fluid administration with more work needed before goal-directed fluid therapy (GDFT) can be recommended | Medium | 3b |
Antiemetics | Calculation of post-operative nausea and vomiting (PONV) risk and regular use of multimodal anti-emetics therapy based on risk | Strong | 1a |
Postoperative nutrition | Early enteral nutrition | Strong | 1a |
Nasogastric (NG) intubation | Avoid routine use of prophylactic NG intubation for gastric decompression | Strong | 1a |
Metoclopramide | Regular metoclopramide in patients with delayed gastric emptying | Strong | 1b |
Early removal of drains | Removal of prophylactic drains as soon as possible to improve mobilisation | Weak | 5 |
Early removal of urinary catheter | Aim to remove urinary catheter within 48 h of surgery if patient stable | Medium | 3b |
Postoperative mobilization | Early on the day, mobilisation in intensive care settings | Strong | 1a |
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Elango, M.; Papalois, V. Working towards an ERAS Protocol for Pancreatic Transplantation: A Narrative Review. J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10, 1418. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10071418
Elango M, Papalois V. Working towards an ERAS Protocol for Pancreatic Transplantation: A Narrative Review. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2021; 10(7):1418. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10071418
Chicago/Turabian StyleElango, Madhivanan, and Vassilios Papalois. 2021. "Working towards an ERAS Protocol for Pancreatic Transplantation: A Narrative Review" Journal of Clinical Medicine 10, no. 7: 1418. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10071418