Health Benefits of Nut Consumption in Middle-Aged and Elderly Population
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Association between Nut Consumption and Cardiometabolic Disorders
2.1. Nut Consumption in Cardiometabolic Morbidity and Mortality
2.2. Nut Consumption and Blood Lipids
2.3. Nut Consumption and Biochemical and Anthropometric Parameters
2.4. Nut Consumption Effect on Endothelial Function and Inflammation Markers
3. Association between Nuts and Cancer
4. Association between Nuts and Cognitive Disorders
5. Other Possible Beneficial Association of Nuts
6. Phytochemicals and Mechanisms Responsible for the Beneficial Activity
7. The Association between Nut Intake and Gastrointestinal Microbiota
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AD | Alzheimer’s disease |
AGEs | advanced glycation end products |
AMD | age-related macular degeneration |
apoB | apolipoprotein B |
BDNF | brain-derived neurotrophic factor |
BMI | body mass index |
BP | blood pressure |
BW | body weight |
CAD | coronary artery disease |
CHD | coronary heart disease |
CI | confidence interval |
CNS | central nervous system |
CRP | C-reactive protein |
CVD | cardiovascular diseases |
EA | ellagic acid |
EGCG | (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate |
ER | estrogen receptor |
ETs | ellagitannins |
FMD | flow-mediated dilation |
GLUTs | glucose transporters |
GM | gut microbiota |
HbA1c | hemoglobin A1c |
HDL-C | high density lipoprotein-cholesterol |
HOMA-IR | Homeostatic Model Assessment—Insulin Resistance |
HR | hazard ratio |
IHD | ischemic heart disease |
IL-6 | interleukin 6 |
KBs | ketone bodies |
KDs | ketogenic diets |
LDL-C | low density lipoprotein-cholesterol |
MDD | major depressive disorder |
MD | Mediterranean diet |
MS | metabolic syndrome |
MUFAs | monounsaturated fatty acids |
NO | nitric oxide |
OR | odds ratio |
PD | Parkinson’s disease |
PTS | pterostilbene |
PUFAs | polyunsaturated fatty acids |
RCT | randomized controlled trial |
ROS | reactive oxygen species |
RR | relative risk |
T-C | total cholesterol |
T2DM | type 2 diabetes mellitus |
TG | triglycerides |
TNF-α | tumor necrosis factor-α |
VLDL-C | very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol |
Wc | waist circumference |
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Author, Year, Country [Ref] | Design | Subjects (F:M) Mean Age (Range) | Length of Study | Comparison Group | Intake of Nuts | Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Salas-Salvadó et al., 2011,2018 Spain [13] | RCT | 418 (293:125) 67 (55–80) y | 4 y | Control (low-fat diet *) | MD + 30 g/d nuts (15 g W, 7.5 g H, 7.5 g A) | ↓ diabetes incidence, HR 0.47 (95% CI: 0.23–0.98) (vs. control) |
Estruch et al., 2018, Spain [20] | RCT, Parallel, multicenter | 2454 (1326:1128) 66.7 ± 6.1 | 4.8 y | Control (nut free diet) | MD + 30 g/d mixed nuts (15 g W, 7.5 g A, 7.5 g H) | ↓ incidence of CV events (myocardial infarction, stroke, death from CV causes) (vs. control) HR 0.64 (95% CI: 0.47–0.88) |
Pan et al., 2013, USA [14] | Prospective (NHS) | 58,063 F 52–77 y | 22 y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) Never/rarely (2) <1 serving/wk (3) 1 serving/wk (4) 2–4 servings/wk (5) ≥5 servings/wk | ↓ T2DM risk (p-trend < 0.001) for tree nuts and peanuts HR 0.80 (95% CI: 0.71–0.90) for (2) to (4) vs. (1) HR 0.74 (95% CI: 0.65–0.84) for (5) vs. (1) ↓ T2DM risk (p-trend = 0.002) for walnuts HR 0.76 (95% CI: 0.62–0.94) for (4),(5) vs. (1) | |
Ibarrola-Jurado et al., 2013, Spain [15] | Cross-sectional (PREDIMED) | 7210 (4143:3067) 67 (55–80) y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) <1 serving/wk (2) 1–3 servings/wk (3) >3 servings/wk | ↓ prevalence of diabetes (3) vs. (1): OR 0.87 (95% CI: 0.78–0.99), p-trend = 0.043 ↓ prevalence of MS (3) vs. (1): OR 0.74 (95% CI: 0.65–0.85), p-trend < 0.001 ↓ prevalence of obesity (3) vs. (1): OR 0.61 (95% CI: 0.54–0.68), p-trend < 0.001 | ||
Guasch-Ferré et al., 2013, Spain [16] | Prospective (PREDIMED) | 7216 (4145:3071) 67 y | 4.8 y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) none (2) 1–3 servings/wk (3) >3 servings/wk | ↓ CV mortality (3) vs. (1) for walnuts HR 0.53 (95% CI: 0.29–0.98), p-trend = 0.047 ↓ CV mortality (3) vs. (1) for tree nuts (no walnuts) and peanuts HR 0.42 (95% CI: 0.20–0.89), p-trend = 0.031 ↓ total mortality risk (3) vs. (1) for tree nuts (walnuts included) and peanuts HR 0.61 (95% CI: 0.45–0.83), p-trend = 0.01 | |
Hshieh et al., 2015, USA [17] | Prospective | 20,742 M 67 y | 9.6 y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) <1 serving/mo (2) 1–3 servings/mo (3) 1 serving/wk (4) 2–4 servings/wk (5) ≥5 servings/wk | ↓ CVD deaths (5) vs. (1) HR 0.74 (95% CI: 0.55–1.02), p-trend = 0.015 | |
Guasch-Ferré et al., 2017, USA [18] | Prospective (a) NHS (b) NHS II (c) HPFS | (a) 76,364 F (b) 92,946 F (c) 41,526 M 56 y | 28.7 y 21.5 y 22.5 y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) Never/almost never (2) <1 time/wk (3) 1 time/wk (4) 2–4 times/wk (5) ≥5 times/wk | (5) vs. (1) for tree nuts and peanuts ↓ CVD-HR 0.86 (95% CI: 0.79–0.93, p-trend < 0.001) ↓ CHD-HR 0.80 (95% CI: 0.72–0.89, p-trend < 0.001) ≥2 times/wk tree nuts and peanuts ↓ 13–19% CVD risk ↓ 15–23% CHD risk | |
Larsson et al., 2018, Sweden [19] | Prospective | 61,364 (28,453:32,911) 58 (45–83) y | 17 y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) none (2) 1–3 times/mo (3) 1–2 times/wk (4) ≥3 times/wk | ↓ risk of atrial fibrillation for (4) vs. (1) (linear association) HR 0.82 (95% CI: 0.68–0.99), p-trend = 0.004 ↓ risk of heart failure for (3) vs. (1) (non-linear association) HR 0.80 (95% CI: 0.67–0.97), p-trend = 0.003 (fully adjusted models) | |
Liu et al., 2019, USA [21] | Prospective (NHS, HPFS) | 16,217 (12,006:4211) 64.7–69.4 y | 34 y 28 y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) <1 serving/mo (2) <1 serving/wk (3) 1 serving/wk (4) 2–4 servings/wk (5) ≥5 servings/wk | (5) vs. (1) HRs ↓ CVD incidence, 0.83 (0.71–0.98), p-trend = 0.01 ↓ CHD incidence, 0.80 (0.67–0.96), p-trend = 0.005 ↓ CVD mortality, 0.66 (0.52–0.84), p-trend < 0.001 ↓ all-cause mortality 0.69 (0.61–0.77), p-trend < 0.001 |
Author, Year, Country [Ref] | Design | Subjects (F:M) Mean Age (±SD) | Length of Study | COMPARISON GROUP | Intake of Nuts | Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Li et al., 2011, Taiwan [31] | RCT, Crossover | 20 (11:9) T2DM patients 58 y | 12 wk | Control (diet without A) | 56 g/d A | ↓ T-C 6.0% (95% CI: 1.6–9.4), p ≤ 0.0025 ↓ LDL-C 11.6% (95% CI: 2.8–19.1), p ≤ 0.0117 ↓ LDL-C/HDL-C ratio 9.7% (95% CI: 0.3–20.9), p ≤ 0.0128 (vs. control) |
Wu et al., 2014, Germany [32] | RCT, Crossover | 40 (30:10) 60 ± 1 y | 8 wk | Control (nut-free Western-type diet) | 43 g/d W | ↓ non-HDL-C (−10 ± 3 mg/dL, p = 0.025) ↓ apoB (−5.0 ± 1.3 mg/dL, p = 0.009) (vs. baseline) |
Hernández-Alonso et al., 2015, Spain [33] | RCT, Crossover | 54 (25:29) prediabetics 55 y | 9 mo | Control (diet without pistachios) | 57 g/d pistachio | ↓ LDL-C (P) −28.07 nM (95% CI: −60.43 to 4.29) vs. baseline; p = 0.02 ↓ Non-HDL-C (P) −36.02 nM (95% CI: −77.56 to 5.52) vs. baseline; p = 0.04 |
Ruisinger et al., 2015, USA [34] | RCT, Parallel | 48 (24:24) on statin therapy 60 y | 4 wk | Control (diet without A) | 100 g/d A | ↓ non-HDL-C (113.4 ± 24.5 vs. 124.7 ± 20.8 mg/dL, p = 0.024) ↓ LDL-C (95.6 ± 23.9 vs. 104.3 ± 18.7 mg/dL, p = 0.068) ↓ TG (102.1 ± 38.3 vs. 115.0 ± 42.6 mg/dL, p = 0.068) (vs. control) |
Jamshed et al., 2015, Pakistan [35] | RCT | 150 (37:113) CAD patients 60 (32–86) y | 12 wk | Control (diet without A) | 10 g/d A before breakfast | ↑ HDL-C (40 ± 6 vs. 33 ± 5 mg/dL) ↓ TG (118 ± 18 vs. 130 ± 20 mg/dL) (vs. baseline; p all < 0.05) |
Njike et al., 2015, USA [36] | RCT, Parallel | 112 (81:31) 55 y | 6 mo | Control (diet without W) | 56 g/d W | ↓ T-C (−16.04 ± 27.34 mg/dL vs. baseline, p < 0.0001) ↓ LDL-C (−14.52 ± 24.11 mg/dL vs. baseline, p < 0.0001) |
Huguenin et al., 2015, Brazil, [37] | RCT, Crossover | 91 (44:47) hypertensive 62 y | 12 wk | Control (nut-free diet) | 13 g/d Granulated Brazil nut | ↓ Ox LDL-C (60.68 ± 20.88 from 66.31 ± 23.59 U/L) (vs. baseline, p < 0.05) |
Sauder et al., 2015, USA [38] | RCT, Crossover | 30 (15:15) 56.1 ± 7.8 y | 4 wk | Control (diet without pistachios) | pistachios (20% of total energy) | ↓ T-C (4.00 ± 0.06 vs. 4.15 ± 0.06 mmol/L, p = 0.048) ↓ T-C/HDL-C (4.06 ± 0.08 vs. 4.37 ± 0.08, p = 0.0004) ↓ TG (1.56 ± 0.10 vs. 1.84 ± 0.10, p = 0.003) (vs. control) |
Mah et al., 2017, USA [39] | RCT, Crossover | 51 (31:20) 56 y | 4 wk | Control (diet without cashews) | 28–64 g/d cashews | ↓ T-C 23.9% (95% CI: 29.3–1.7) vs. 0.8% (95% CI: 21.5–4.5) ↓ LDL-C 24.8% (95% CI: 212.6–3.1) vs. 1.2% (95% CI: 22.3–7.8) ↓ non-HDL-C 25.3% (95% CI: 28.6–2.1) vs. 1.7% (95% CI: 20.9–5.6%)(vs. baseline compared with control, p < 0.05) |
Bamberger et al., 2017, Germany [40] | RCT, Crossover | 194 (134:60) 63 ± 0.54 y | 24 wk | Control (diet without W) | 43 g/d W | ↓ T-C (−9.5 vs. −2.2 mg/dL, p = 0.0003) ↓ LDL-C (−7.3 vs. −1.9 mg/dL, p = 0.0009) ↓ non-HDL-C (−9.4 vs. −1.5 mg/dL, p < 0.001) ↓ TG (−5.5 vs. 3.4 mg/dL, p = 0.0943) ↓ apoB (−6.8 vs. −0.9 mg/dL, p < 0.0001) (vs. control) |
McKay et al., 2018, USA [41] | RCT, Crossover | 26 (5:21) 59.7 (57–70) y | 12 wk | Control (isocaloric, no pecans) | 42.5 g/d pecans | ↓ T-C (−8.89 ± 4.41, p = 0.056) ↓ LDL-C (−7.41 ± 3.85, p = 0.067) |
Jenkins et al., 2018, Canada [42] | RCT, Parallel | 117 (39:78) diabetics 62 y | 3 mo | Controls (isocaloric (1) carbs diet and (2) carbs and nut diet) | 75 g/d mixed nuts (tree nuts and peanuts) | ↓ T-C −0.06 mmol/L (95% CI: −0.12 to −0.01), p = 0.026 ↓ non HDL-C −0.09 mmol/L (95% CI: −0.17 to −0.01), p = 0.026 ↓ apoB −0.09 g/L (95% CI: −0.16 to −0.02), p = 0.015 vs. control (1) |
Bowen et al., 2019, Australia [43] | RCT | 76 (31:45) 61 y | 8 wk | Control (nut free diet) | 56 g/d A | ↓ TC/HDL-C ratio (in women, but not in men) |
Author, Year, Country [Ref] | Design | Subjects (F:M) Mean Age (Range) | Length of Study | Comparison Group | Intake of Nuts | Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Li et al., 2011, Taiwan [31] | RCT, Crossover | 20 (11:9) diabetics 58 y | 12 wk | Control (diet without A) | 60 g/d A | ↓ fasting insulin 4.1% (95% CI: 0.9–12.5), p ≤ 0.0184 ↓ fasting glucose 0.8% (95% CI: 0.4–6.3), p ≤ 0.0238 ↓ HOMA-IR 9.2% (95% CI: 4.4–13.2), p ≤ 0.0039 (vs. control) |
Cohen & Johnston, 2011, USA [54] | RCT | 13 (6:7) diabetics 66 y | 12 wk | Control (diet without A) | 28 g/d A | ↓ HbA1c (−4% vs. +1% for almond group vs. control), p = 0.045 ↓ BMI (−4% vs. 0% for almond group vs. control), p = 0.047 |
Damasceno et al., 2013, Spain [55] | RCT | 169 (95:74) 67 (55–80) y | 1 y | Baseline and Control (low-fat diet *) | MD + 30 g/d nuts (15 g W, 7.5 g H, 7.5 g A) | ↓ Wc −5.1cm (95% CI: −6.8 to −3.4) vs. baseline; p ≤ 0.006 ↓VLDL-C −111 nmol/l (95% CI: −180 to −42) vs. baseline |
Lasa et al., 2014, Spain [56] | RCT | 191 (114:77) diabetics 67 (55–80) y | 1 y | Baseline and Control (low-fat diet) | 30 g/d nuts (15 g W, 7.5 g H, 7.5 g A) | ↓ BW (−0.71 ± 2.41 kg vs. baseline of 75.2 ± 11.5 kg, p = 0.021) ↓ Wc (−4.84 ± 7.50 cm vs. baseline of 99.1 ± 8.96 cm, p = 0.001 for women) |
Hernández-Alonso et al., 2014, Spain [57] | RCT, Crossover | 54 (25:29) prediabetics 55 y | 9 mo | Control (diet without pistachios) | 57 g/d pistachio | ↓ fasting glucose −5.17 mg/dL (95% CI: −8.14 to −2.19) vs. baseline; p < 0.001 ↓ fasting insulin −2.04 mU/mL (95% CI: −3.17 to −0.92) vs. baseline; p < 0.001 ↓HOMA-IR −0.69 (95% CI: −1.07 to −0.31) vs. baseline; p < 0.001 ↑ GLP−1 4.09 pg/mL (95% CI: 1.25–6.94) vs. baseline; p = 0.01 |
Rodríguez-Rejón et al., 2014, Spain [58] | RCT | 2866 (1781:1085) non-diabetics 67 (55–80) y | 1 y | Control (low-fat diet) | MD + 30 g/d nuts (15 g W, 7.5 g H, 7.5 g A) | ↓ dietary GL −10.34 (95% CI: −12.69 to −8.00) ↓dietary GI −1.06 (95% CI: −1.51 to −0.62) |
Chen et al., 2017, China [59] | RCT, Crossover | 33 (20:13) diabetics 55 y | 12 wk | Control (isocaloric diet no A) | 60 g/d A | ↓ fasting glucose 129.3 ± 25.6 (fast) vs. 132.8 ± 24.8 (pre) p = 0.011 ↓ HbA1c (%) 7.01 ± 0.62 (fast) vs. 7.18 ± 0.64 (pre) p = 0.043 |
Hou et al., 2018, China [60] | RCT | 25 (10:15) diabetics 70 (40–80) y | 3 mo | Compared to baseline | (1) Peanuts (60 g/d men, 50 g/d women) (2) A (55 g/d men, 45 g/d women) | ↓ fasting glucose–in (1) and (2) ↓ postprandial 2-h blood glucose–in (1) and (2) (compared to baseline) (p < 0.05) |
Jenkins et al., 2018, Canada [42] | RCT, Parallel | 117 (39:78) diabetics 62 y | 3 mo | Controls (isocaloric (1) carbs diet and (2) carbs and nut diet) | 75 g/d mixed nuts (tree nuts and peanuts) | ↓ HbA1c −2.0 mmol/mol (95% CI: −3.8 to −0.3), p = 0.026 vs. control (1) |
McKay et al., 2018, USA [41] | RCT, Crossover | 26 (5:21) 59.7 (57–70) y | 12 wk | Control (isocaloric, no pecans) | 42.5 g/d pecans | ↓ fasting insulin (−2.00 ± 0.83 µIU/mL, p = 0.024) ↓ HOMA-IR (−0.51 ± 0.23, p = 0.037) |
Author, Year, Country [Ref] | Design | Subjects (F:M)Mean Age (±SD) | Length of Study | Comparison Group | Intake of Nuts | Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ma et al., 2010, USA [74] | RCT, Crossover | 24 (14:10) 58.1 ± 9.2 y | 8 wk | Control (diet without W) | 56 g/d W | ↑ FMD (2.2 ± 1.7 vs. 1.2 ± 1.6%, p = 0.04) (vs. control) |
Katz et al., 2012, USA [75] | RCT, Crossover | 46 (28:18) 57.4 ± 11.9 y | 8 wk | Control (diet without nuts) | 56 g/d W | ↑ FMD 1.1% (95% CI: 0.2–2.0), p = 0.019 (vs. control) |
Liu et al., 2013, Taiwan [76] | RCT, Crossover | 20 (11:9) diabetics 58 y | 12 wk | Control (diet without A) | 56 g/d A | ↓ IL-6 10.3% (95% CI: 5.2–12.6) ↓ TNF-α 15.7 % (95% CI: −0.3 to 29.9) ↓ CRP 10.3% (95% CI: −24.1 to 40.5), p = 0.0455 (vs. control) |
Sweazea et al., 2014, USA [77] | RCT, Parallel | 21 (12:9) 56.2 y | 12 wk | Control (diet without A) | 43 g/d A | ↓ CRP in almond group vs. control (−1.2 vs. +4.33 mg/L, p = 0.029) |
Chen et al. 2015, USA [78] | RCT Crossover | 45 (26:18) 61.8 ± 8.6 y CAD patients | 22 wk | Control (diet without A) | 85 g/d A | ↑ FMD, % (7.7 ± 3.3 vs. 8.3 ± 3.8%) (vs. control) |
Yu et al., 2016, USA [79] | Cross-sectional (a)NHS (b)HPFS | (a) 3654 F; 59 y (b) 1359 M; 65 y | 4 y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) Never or almost never (2) <1 time/wk (3) 1 time/wk (4) 2–4 times/wk (5) ≥5 times/wk | ↓ CRP–RR 0.90 (0.84–0.97) for (4) vs. (1); RR 0.84 (0.74–0.95) for (5) vs. (1) (p-trend = 0.006) ↓ IL-6–RR 0.88 (0.83–0.94) for (4) vs. (1); RR 0.88 (0.79–0.99) for (5) vs. (1) (p-trend = 0.016) |
Author, Year, Country [Ref] | Design | Subjects (F:M) Mean Age (Range) | Length of Intervention | Intake of Nuts | Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hardman et al., 2019, USA [105] | RCT | 10 women 55 y | 2 to 3 wk | 56 g/d walnuts | ↓ growth and survival of breast cancer cells in walnut-diet group vs. control (no walnut) |
Raimondi et al., 2010, Canada, [91] | Case-control study | 394 men 69 y | Total nuts (g/d) (1) 0 (2) 0.1–1.2 (3) 1.3–3.0 (4) >3 | ↓ prostate cancer risk (4) vs. (1): OR 0.43 (95% CI: 0.22–0.85), p-trend = 0.01 | |
Ibiebele et al., 2012, Australia [92] | Case-control study | 2780 women 57 y | n-6 fatty acid (g) from total nuts (1) 0.13 (0.0–0.29) (2) 0.45 (0.29–0.68) (3) 1.48 (0.73–2.59) (4) 3.35 (2.59–25.9) | ↓ ovarian cancer risk (4) vs. (1) OR 0.72 (95% CI: 0.57–0.92), p-trend = 0.02 | |
Guasch-Ferré et al., 2013, Spain [16] | Prospective | 7216 (4145:3071) high CV risk 67 y | 4.8 y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) none (2) 1–3 servings/wk (3) >3 servings/wk | ↓ cancer mortality (3) vs. (1) for walnuts HR 0.46 (0.27–0.79), p-trend = 0.005 ↓ cancer mortality (3) vs. (1) for all nuts HR 0.60 (0.37–0.98), p-trend = 0.064 |
Bao et al., 2013, USA [93] | Prospective | 75,680 women 59 y | 30 y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) never/almost never (2) 1–3 times/mo (3) 1 time/wk (4) ≥2 times/wk | ↓ pancreatic cancer risk (p-trend = 0.01) RR 0.71 (95% CI: 0.51–0.99) for (3) vs. (1) RR 0.68 (95% CI: 0.48–0.96) for (4) vs. (1) |
van den Brandt and Schouten, 2015, the Netherlands [94] | Prospective | 120,852 (62,573:58,279) 61 y | 10 y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) 0 g/d (2) 0.1–5 g/d (3) 5–10 g/d (4) 10+ g/d | ↓ cancer mortality (p-trend = 0.002) HR 0.82 (95% CI: 0.68–0.98) for (3) vs. (1) HR 0.79 (95% CI: 0.67–0.93) for (4) vs. (1) |
Yang et al., 2016, USA [95] | Prospective | 75,680 women 59 y | 30 y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) never/almost never (2) 1–3 times/mo (3) once/wk (4) ≥2 times/wk | ↓ colorectal cancer risk (p-trend = 0.06), RR 0.87 (95% CI: 0.72–1.05) for (4) vs. (1) |
Wang et al., 2016, USA [96] | Prospective | 47,299 men 65 y | 26 y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) Never or almost never (2) <1 time/wk (3) 1 time/wk (4) 2–4 times/wk (5) ≥5 times/wk | ↓ overall mortality after being diagnosed with non-metastatic prostate cancer (5) vs. (1) HR 0.66 (95% CI: 0.52–0.83), p-trend = 0.0005 |
Lee et al., 2017, Italy/USA [97] | EAGLE case-control study; NIH-AARP Diet and Health cohort study | 3639—65 y 495,785—62 y | 16 y | Tree nuts and peanuts 10 categories, ranging from “never” to ≥2 times per day; 3 categories for portion size | ↓ lung cancer risk (highest vs. lowest nut intake) OREAGLE 0.74 (95% CI: 0.57–0.95), p-trend = 0.017 HRAARP 0.86 (95% CI: 0.81–0.91), p-trend < 0.001 |
Hashemian et al., 2017, USA [98] | Prospective | 566,407 (59.6% men) 63 (50–71) y | 15.5 y | Tree nuts, peanuts, peanut butter Expressed in g/1000 kcal: (C0) 0 (C1) 0.11 (0.05, 0.16) (C2) 0.51 (0.36, 0.68) (C3) 2.20 (1.35, 4.12) | ↓ gastric noncardia adenocarcinoma risk (C3) vs. (C0): HR 0.73 (95% CI: 0.57–0.94, p-trend 0.004) for tree nuts and peanuts HR 0.75 (95% CI: 0.60–0.94, p-trend 0.02) for peanut butter |
Nieuwenhuis and van den Brandt 2018, the Netherlands [99] | Prospective | 120,852 (62,573:58,279) 62 (55–69) y | 20.3 y | Tree nuts and peanuts: (1) non-consumers (2) 0.1–5 g/d (3) 5–10 g/d (4) >10 g/d | ↓ pancreatic cancer risk in men—(3), (4) vs. (1) HR 0.53 (95% CI: 0.28–1.00), p-trend = 0.047 |
Nieuwenhuis and van den Brandt 2018, the Netherlands [100] | Prospective | 120,852 (62,573:58,279) 62 (55–69) y | 20.3 y | Tree nuts and peanuts: (1) non-consumers (2) 0.1–5 g/d (3) 5–10 g/d (4) >10 g/d | ↓ esophageal squamous cell carcinoma risk(4) vs. (1) HR 0.54 (95% CI: 0.30–0.96), p-trend = 0.050 |
Fadelu et al., 2018, USA [101] | Prospective | 826 patients with stage III colon cancer | 6.5 y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) none (2) ≥2 servings/wk | ↑ disease-free survival (2) vs. (1) HR 0.58 (95% CI: 0.37–0.92), p-trend = 0.03 ↑ overall survival (2) vs. (1) HR 0.43 (95% CI: 0.25–0.74), p-trend = 0.01 ↓ cancer recurrence and mortality |
van den Brandt and Nieuwenhuis 2018, the Netherlands [102] | Prospective | 62,573 women 61 (55–69) y | 20.3 y | Tree nuts and peanuts: (1) non-consumers (2) 0.1–5 g/d (3) 5–10 g/d (4) >10 g/d | ↓ (ER -) breast cancer risk (4) vs. (1) HR 0.55 (95% CI: 0.33–0.93), p-trend = 0.025 ↓ ER–PR breast cancer risk (4) vs. (1) HR 0.53 (95% CI: 0.29–0.99), p-trend = 0.037 |
Zhao et al., 2018, China [103] | Case-control study | 444 (152:292) 59 (40–69) y | Peanuts: (1) <1/mo (2) 1–3 times/mo (3) 1–3 times /wk (4) 4–6 times/wk | ↓ esophageal squamous cell carcinoma risk(4) vs. (1) OR 0.31 (95% CI: 0.16–0.59), p-trend < 0.001 | |
Lee et al., 2018, Korea [104] | Case-control study | 2769 (894:1875) 57 (48–66) y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) None (2) <1 serving (15g)/wk (3) 1–3 servings/wk (4) ≥3 servings/wk | ↓ colorectal cancer risk (F,M) (4) vs. (1) OR 0.30 (95% CI: 0.20–0.45), p-trend < 0.001 ↓ distal colon cancer risk (4) vs. (1) OR 0.13 (95% CI: 0.04–0.48), p < 0.001 for F OR 0.39 (95% CI: 0.19–0.80), p = 0.004 for M ↓ rectal cancer risk (4) vs. (1) OR 0.40 (95% CI: 0.17–0.95), p = 0.006 for F OR 0.23 (95% CI: 0.12–0.46), p < 0.001 for M | |
Sui et al., 2019, USA [106] | Prospective, NHS and HPFS | 88,783 women 51,492 men 63 y | 27.9 y | Tree nuts, servings/wk (1) 0.01 (2) 0.23 (3) 1.25 | ↓ hepatocellular carcinoma (3) vs. (1) HR 0.64 (95% CI: 0.43–0.95), p-trend = 0.07 |
Nieuwenhuis and van den Brandt 2019, the Netherlands [107] | Prospective | 120,852 (62,573:58,279) 62 (55–69) y | 20.3 y | Tree nuts and peanuts: (1) non-consumers (2) 0.1–5 g/d (3) 5–10 g/d (4) >10 g/d | ↓ small cell carcinoma (lung cancer subtype) in men—(4) vs. (1) HR 0.62 (95% CI: 0.43–0.89), p-trend = 0.024 ↓ lung cancer risk in men (non-significantly) |
Author, Year, Country [Ref] | Design | Subjects (F:M) Mean Age (Range) | Length of Intervention | Comparison Group | Intake of Nuts | Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sánchez-Villegas et al., 2011, Spain [118] | RCT | 152 (76:76) 68 y | 3 y | Control (low-fat diet *) | MD + 30 g/d nuts (15 g W + 15 g A) | ↓ risk for low plasma BDNF values OR 0.22 (95% CI: 0.05–0.90, p = 0.04) vs. control |
Martínez-Lapiscina et al., 2013, Spain [121] | RCT, multicenter | 522 (289:233) 67 y | 6.5 y | Control (low-fat diet *) | MD + 30 g/d nuts (15 g W, 7.5 g H, 7.5 g A) | ↑ cognition ↑ MMSE 0.57 (95% CI: 0.11–1.03, p = 0.015) vs. control ↑ CDT 0.33 (95% CI: 0.003–0.67, p = 0.048) vs. control |
Valls-Pedret et al., 2015, Spain [123] | RCT | 334 (170:164) 67 (55–80) y | 4.1 y | Control (low-fat diet *) | MD + 30 g/d nuts (15 g W, 7.5 g H, 7.5 g A) | ↓ age-related cognitive decline ↑ memory composite 0.09 (95% CI: −0.05 to 0.23, p = 0.04) vs. control ↑ frontal cognition composite 0.03 (95% CI: −0.25 to 0.31, p = 0.03) vs. control |
Barbour et al., 2017, Australia [124] | RCT, Crossover | 61 (32:29) 65 y | 12 wk | Control (nut free diet) | 56–84 g peanut/d | ↑ cognitive functions (short-term memory, verbal fluency, processing speed) vs. control |
Nooyens et al., 2011, the Netherlands [119] | Prospective | 2613 (1325:1288) 55 (43–70) y | Ongoing since 1995 | Tree nuts and peanuts 5 quintiles of nut consumption | ↑ cognitive function at baseline ↓ cognitive decline: memory (highest vs. lowest nut intake, p = 0.03); global cognitive function (highest vs. lowest nut intake, p = 0.02) | |
Valls-Pedret et al., 2012, Spain [120] | Cross-sectional | 447 (233:214) 67 (55–80) y | 30 g W/d | ↑ cognitive function (working memory, p = 0.039) | ||
O’Brien et al., 2014, USA [122] | Prospective | 15,467 women 74 y | 6 y | Tree nuts and peanuts (1) never, <1/mo (2) 1–3/mo (3) 1/wk (4) 2–4/wk (5) 5/wk | ↑ cognitive performance ↑ cognition (4), (5) vs. (1) |
Mean Value (g/100 g) | Almond | Brazil Nut | Cashew | Hazelnut | Macadamia | Pecan | Pine Nuts | Pistachio | Walnut | Peanut |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total fat | 49.9 | 67.1 | 43.8 | 60.7 | 75.8 | 72.0 | 68.4 | 45.3 | 65.2 | 49.2 |
SFA | 3.8 | 16.1 | 7.8 | 4.5 | 12.1 | 6.2 | 4.9 | 5.9 | 6.1 | 6.8 |
MUFA | 31.6 | 23.9 | 23.8 | 45.7 | 58.9 | 40.8 | 18.8 | 23.3 | 8.9 | 24.4 |
PUFA | 12.3 | 24.4 | 7.8 | 7.9 | 1.5 | 21.6 | 34.1 | 14.4 | 47.2 | 15.6 |
(MUFA + PUFA)/SFA | 11.6 | 3.0 | 4.1 | 11.9 | 5.0 | 10.1 | 8.8 | 6.4 | 9.2 | 5.9 |
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Rusu, M.E.; Mocan, A.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R.; Popa, D.-S. Health Benefits of Nut Consumption in Middle-Aged and Elderly Population. Antioxidants 2019, 8, 302. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8080302
Rusu ME, Mocan A, Ferreira ICFR, Popa D-S. Health Benefits of Nut Consumption in Middle-Aged and Elderly Population. Antioxidants. 2019; 8(8):302. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8080302
Chicago/Turabian StyleRusu, Marius Emil, Andrei Mocan, Isabel C. F. R. Ferreira, and Daniela-Saveta Popa. 2019. "Health Benefits of Nut Consumption in Middle-Aged and Elderly Population" Antioxidants 8, no. 8: 302. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8080302