Anxiety, Insomnia, and Memory Impairment in Metabolic Syndrome Rats Are Alleviated by the Novel Functional Ingredients from Anacardium occidentale
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Preparation of the Functional Ingredient (AO)
2.2. Induction of Metabolic Syndrome (MetS)
2.3. Experimental Animals and Protocols
- Group I
- Naïve intact or control group; rats in this group received no treatment.
- Group II
- Vehicle treated group; all rats in this group were fed with high-fat, high-cholesterol diet (HFHC) to induce metabolic syndrome (MetS) and received vehicle treatment.
- Group III
- High-fat, high-cholesterol diet (HFHC) plus vitamin C-treated group. In this group, MetS rats were induced by HFHC and received vitamin C, a well-known antioxidant. This group also served as positive control owing to its antioxidant activity and its positive effect on stress-related disorders such as anxiety, depression [45], and memory [46].
- Group IV
- High-fat, high-cholesterol diet (HFHC) plus standard drugs for treating anxiety, depression, or memory impairment. This group also served as positive control treated group. During the assessments of anxiolytic and sleep induction effects, benzodiazepine was served as a standard drug, whereas fluoxetine and donepezil were used as standard drugs for antidepression, and memory performance assessments, respectively.
- Group V–VII
- HFHC plus AO1, HFHC plus AO2, and HFHC plus AO3; all MetS rats induced by HFHC in these groups were orally given the functional ingredient (AO) at the doses of 1, 10, and 100 mg/kg BW, respectively.
2.4. Behavioral Assessments
2.4.1. Anxiety-Like Behavior
2.4.2. Spatial Memory Evaluation
2.4.3. Antidepressant Effect Evaluation
2.4.4. Sleep Assessment
2.4.5. The Open Field Test
2.5. Biochemical Assays
2.5.1. GABA-Transaminase Activity Assessment
2.5.2. Determination of Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) Activity
2.5.3. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Activity Assessment
2.5.4. Assessment of Oxidative Stress Parameters
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Anxiolytic Effect
3.2. Sedative and Hypnotic Effect
3.3. Antidepression Effect
3.4. Memory Enhancing Effect
3.5. Locomotor Motor Activity
3.6. Neurotransmitter Changes
3.7. Oxidative Stress Changes
3.8. Behavioral Effects of the Leaf Extract, Fruit Pomace-Derived Dietary Fiber from A. occidentale, and the Functional Ingredient Containing the Leaf Extract and Dietary Fiber from Fruit Pomace from A. occidentale
3.9. Changes in Biochemical Parameters
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Treatment Group | Number of Cross-Line Entries | ||
---|---|---|---|
Day 1 | Day 7 | Day 14 | |
Naïve control | 18.63 ± 0.102 | 16.49 ± 0.114 | 0.885 ± 1.06 |
HFHC + Vehicle | 20.50 ± 0.125 | 15.13 ± 0.124 | 0.852 ± 0.97 |
HFHC + Vitamin C (250 mg/kgBW) | 19.70 ± 1.51 | 16.28 ± 0.135 | 0.979 ± 0.91 |
HFHC + Diazepam (2 mg/kgBW) | 18.25 ± 1.22 | 14.25 ± 0.105 | 0.1055 ± 0.98 |
HFHC + Fluoxetine 20 mg/kg BW | 18.15 ± 1.25 | 0.1565 ± 0.112 | 0.954 ± 0.101 |
HFHC + Donepezil (1 mg/kg BW) | 17.33 ± 1.45 | 14.38 ± 0.103 | 0.1002 ± 0.102 |
HFHC + AO1 (1 mg/kgBW) | 18.05 ± 0.114 | 14.29 ± 0.092 | 0.1045 ± 0.090 |
HFHC + AO2 (10 mg/kgBW) | 18.16 ± 0.112 | 15.11 ± 0.103 | 0.990 ± 1.16 |
HFHC + AO3 (100 mg/kgBW) | 20.54 ± 0.154 | 15.13 ± 0.96 | 0.954 ± 0.102 |
F-test, p-value | F(3,51) = 1.04, p-value = 0.191 | F(3,51) = 1.56, p-value = 0.541 | F(3,51) = 0.94, p-value = 0.981 |
Treatment Group | Number of Central Square Entries | ||
---|---|---|---|
Day 1 | Day 7 | Day 14 | |
Naïve control | 2.25 ± 0.42 | 1.85 ± 0.29 | 0.63 ± 0.06 |
HFHC + Vehicle | 2.13 ± 0.25 | 1.75 ± 0.27 | 0.65 ± 0.07 |
HFHC + Vitamin C (250 mg/kgBW) | 1.97 ± 0.51 | 1.61 ± 0.35 | 0.76 ± 0.01 |
HFHC + Diazepam (2 mg/kgBW) | 1.95 ± 0.25 | 1.75 ± 0.31 | 0.75 ± 0.08 |
HFHC + Fluoxetine 20 mg/kg BW | 1.87 ± 0.45 | 1.65 ± 0.12 | 0.64 ± 0.11 |
HFHC + Donepezil (1 mg/kg BW) | 2.05 ± 0.35 | 1.80 ± 0.23 | 0.75 ± 0.02 |
HFHC + AO1 (1 mg/kgBW) | 2.15 ± 0.74 | 1.63 ± 0.22 | 0.54 ± 0.08 |
HFHC + AO2 (10 mg/kgBW) | 2.25 ± 0.42 | 1.54 ± 0.33 | 0.63 ± 0.05 |
HFHC + AO3 (100 mg/kgBW) | 1.93 ± 0.54 | 1.74 ± 0.26 | 0.72 ± 0.02 |
F-test, p-value | F(3,51) = 0.84, p-value = 0.997 | F(3,51) = 1.86, p-value = 0.673 | F(3,51) = 1.84, p-value = 0.745 |
Treatment Group | Number of Rearing Events | ||
---|---|---|---|
Day 1 | Day 7 | Day 14 | |
Naïve control | 0.63 ± 0.15 | 0.55 ± 0.014 | 0.54 ± 0.016 |
HFHC + Vehicle | 0.61 ± 0.17 | 0.63 ± 0.014 | 0.52 ± 0.17 |
HFHC + Vitamin C (250 mg/kgBW) | 0.58 ± 0.12 | 0.60 ± 0.15 | 0.48 ± 0.14 |
HFHC + Diazepam (2 mg/kgBW) | 0.59 ± 0.25 | 0.64 ± 0.11 | 0.055 ± 0.18 |
HFHC + Fluoxetine 20 mg/kg BW | 0.57 ± 0.21 | 0.53 ± 0.012 | 0.054 ± 0.013 |
HFHC + Donepezil (1 mg/kg BW) | 0.61 ± 0.18 | 0.57 ± 0.11 | 0.51 ± 0.017 |
HFHC + AO1 (1 mg/kgBW) | 0.60 ± 0.017 | 0.57 ± 0.22 | 0.055 ± 0.018 |
HFHC + AO2 (10 mg/kgBW) | 0.71 ± 0.22 | 0.62 ± 0.023 | 0.57 ± 0.016 |
HFHC + AO3 (100 mg/kgBW) | 0.68 ± 0.22 | 0.63 ± 0.21 | 0.58 ± 0.014 |
F-test, p-value | F(3,51) = 1.20, p-value = 0.573 | F(3,51) = 1.16, p-value = 0.475 | F(3,51) = 1.75, p-value = 0.486 |
Treatment Group | Number of Grooming Events | ||
---|---|---|---|
1-Day | 7-Day | 14-Day | |
Naïve control | 2.38 ± 0.34 | 2.65 ± 0.31 | 2.50 ± 0.62 |
HFHC + Vehicle | 2.34 ± 0.25 | 2.25 ± 0.32 | 2.25 ± 0.66 |
HFHC + Vitamin C (250 mg/kgBW) | 2.58 ± 0.31 | 2.60 ± 0.48 | 2.51 ± 0.53 |
HFHC + Diazepam (2 mg/kgBW) | 2.28 ± 0.27 | 2.25 ± 0.54 | 2.75 ± 0.53 |
HFHC + Fluoxetine 20 mg/kg BW | 2.25 ± 0.027 | 2.45 ± 0.44 | 2.41 ± 0.51 |
HFHC + Donepezil (1 mg/kg BW) | 2.30 ± 0.45 | 2.45 ± 0.46 | 2.46 ± 0.48 |
HFHC + AO1 (1 mg/kgBW) | 2.13 ± 0.50 | 2.49 ± 0.45 | 2.44 ± 0.47 |
HFHC + AO2 (10 mg/kgBW) | 2.35 ± 0.47 | 2.54 ± 0.50 | 2.48 ± 0.47 |
HFHC + AO3 (100 mg/kgBW) | 2.25 ± 0.48 | 2.54 ± 0.51 | 2.45 ± 0.45 |
F-test, p-value | F(3,51) = 1.94, p-value = 0.653 | F(3,51) = 0.96, p-value = 0.904 | F(3,51) = 1.84, p-value = 0.32 |
Treatment Group | MDA Level (ng/mg.Protein) | SOD Activity (Units/mg.Protein) | CAT Activity (Units/mg.Protein) | GSH-Px Activity (Units/mg.Protein) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Naïve control | 0.28 ± 0.04 | 7.14 ± 0.23 | 75.34 ± 2.51 | 10.14 ± 0.54 |
HFHC + Vehicle | 1.58 ± 0.23 aaa | 1.25 ± 0.43 aaa | 23.50 ± 6.85 aaa | 1.48 ± 0.53 aaa |
HFHC + Vitamin C (250 mg/kgBW) | 0.49 ± 0.02 *** | 4.58 ± 0.30 *** | 55.72 ± 6.74 | 5.03 ± 0.42 * |
HFHC + AO1 (1 mg/kgBW) | 0.35 ± 0.02 *** | 6.26 ± 0.24 *** | 62.85 ± 7.71 *** | 7.79 ± 0.46 *** |
HFHC + AO2 (10 mg/kgBW) | 0.31 ± 0.04 *** | 6.66 ± 0.74 *** | 71.57 ± 8.25 *** | 7.93 ± 1.14 *** |
HFHC + AO3 (100 mg/kgBW) | 0.31 ± 0.02 *** | 6.43 ± 0.56 *** | 72.73 ± 5.12 *** | 7.59 ± 0.31 *** |
F-test, p-value | F(9,27) = 204.48, p-value < 0.001 | F(9,27) = 313.09, p-value < 0.001 | F(9,27) = 168.22, p-value < 0.001 | F(9,27) = 258.93, p-value < 0.001 |
Treatment Group | MDA Level (ng/mg.Protein) | SOD Activity (Units/mg.Protein) | CAT Activity (Units/mg.Protein) | GSH-Px Activity (Units/mg.Protein) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Naïve control | 0.29 ± 0.02 | 6.49 ± 0.14 | 16.85 ± 1.26 | 7.96 ± 0.64 |
HFHC + Vehicle | 2.33 ± 0.25 aaa | 1.16 ± 0.24 aaa | 0.52 ± 0.09 aaa | 0.99 ± 0.16 aaa |
HFHC + Vitamin C (250 mg/kgBW) | 0.52 ± 0.04 * | 4.38 ± 0.35 ** | 6.99 ± 0.61 | 5.79 ± 0.36 * |
HFHC + AO1 (1 mg/kgBW) | 0.58 ± 0.04 | 3.67 ± 0.43 | 6.25 ± 0.30 | 3.99 ± 0.32 |
HFHC + AO2 (10 mg/kgBW) | 0.52 ± 0.02 * | 4.09 ± 0.33 * | 14.90 ± 1.36 ** | 5.77 ± 0.96 * |
HFHC + AO3 (100 mg/kgBW) | 0.51 ± 0.04 * | 5.17 ± 0.86 *** | 15.54 ± 3.02 ** | 6.54 ± 1.68 *** |
F-test, p-value | F(9,27) = 82.03, p-value < 0.001 | F(9,27) = 57.01, p-value < 0.001 | F(9,27) = 80.42, p-value < 0.001 | F(9,27) = 75.23, p-value < 0.001 |
Behavior Test | Treatment Group | Day 1 | Day 7 | Day 14 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Elevated plus maze | Number in open arm (number) | HFHC + Vehicle | 4.25 ± 0.23 | 3.75 ± 0.39 | 1.13 ± 0.17 |
HFHC + Cashew leaves | 4.08 ± 0.31 | 2.50 ± 0.24 | 3.78 ± 0.25 | ||
HFHC + Fiber | 3.70 ± 0.22 | 2.80 ± 0.27 | 3.38 ± 0.27 | ||
HFHC + AO 10 mg/kg | 3.75 ± 0.30 | 3.05 ± 0.21 | 2.29 ± 0.22 | ||
F-test, p-value | F(4,20) = 1.24, p-value = 0.087 | F(4,20) = 3.11, p-value = 0.095 | F(4,20) = 0.92, p-value = 0.061 | ||
Time spent in open arm (s) | HFHC + Vehicle | 15.50 ± 1.47 | 10.80 ± 2.02 | 11.80 ± 1.20 | |
HFHC + Cashew leaves | 17.10 ± 3.21 | 21.16 ± 3.80 ** | 18.10 ± 2.57 * | ||
HFHC + Fiber | 16.42 ± 1.37 | 16.75 ± 1.35 * | 17.42 ± 1.97 * | ||
HFHC + AO 10 mg/kg | 21.71 ± 2.61 * | 22.15 ± 2.61 ** | 22.83 ± 2.58 *** | ||
F-test, p-value | F(4,20) = 14.20, p-value < 0.05 | F(4,20) = 23.02, p-value < 0.01 | F(4,20) = 94.16, p-value < 0.001 | ||
Morris Water Maze | Escape latency times (s) | HFHC + Vehicle | 10.25 ± 0.83 | 9.75 ± 0.79 | 8.13 ± 0.47 |
HFHC + Cashew leaves | 8.08 ± 0.91 | 8.50 ± 0.84 | 8.78 ± 0.55 | ||
HFHC + Fiber | 9.70 ± 0.72 | 10.80 ± 0.87 | 8.34 ± 0.77 | ||
HFHC + AO 10 mg/kg | 9.45 ± 0.90 | 6.25 ± 0.71 ** | 4.21 ± 0.22 *** | ||
F-test, p-value | F(4,20) = 1.01, p-value = 0.105 | F(4,20) = 18.36, p-value < 0.01 | F(4,20) = 75.07, p-value < 0.001 | ||
Retention times (s) | HFHC + Vehicle | 22.25 ± 0.23 | 25.75 ± 0.39 | 25.83 ± 0.17 | |
HFHC + Cashew leaves | 22.45 ± 0.31 | 25.50 ± 0.24 | 25.78 ± 0.25 | ||
HFHC + Fiber | 23.70 ± 0.42 | 24.80 ± 0.27 | 25.38 ± 0.27 | ||
HFHC + AO 10 mg/kg | 21.23 ± 0.30 | 25.46 ± 0.21 | 32.45 ± 0.22 * | ||
F-test, p-value | F(4,20) = 0.81 p-value = 0.905 | F(4,20) = 1.16, p-value = 0.716 | F(4,20) = 8.28, p-value < 0.05 |
Sedative Test | Treatment Group | Sedative Test (Min) |
---|---|---|
Sleep latency (min) | HFHC + Vehicle | 7.26 ± 0.26 |
HFHC + Cashew leaves | 7.16 ± 0.46 | |
HFHC + Fiber | 9.26 ± 0.26 | |
HFHC + AO 10 mg/kg | 3.25 ± 0.27 *** | |
F-test, p-value | F(4,20) = 115.94, p-value < 0.001 | |
Sleep time (min) | HFHC + Vehicle | 23.33 ± 0.97 |
HFHC + Cashew leaves | 23.25 ± 0.12 | |
HFHC + Fiber | 24.13 ± 0.57 | |
HFHC + AO 10 mg/kg | 67.14 ± 0.42 *** | |
F-test, p-value | F(4,20) = 124.62, p-value < 0.001 |
Area | Treatment Group | MDA Level (ng/mg.Protein) | SOD Activity (Units/mg.Protein) | CAT Activity (Units/mg.Protein) | GSH-Px Activity (Units/mg. Protein) | GABA-T Activity (Units/mg. protein) | MAO Activity (nmol/mg. Protein) | AChE Activity (nmol/mg.Protein) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cerebral cortex | HFHC + Vehicle | 1.58 ± 0.23 | 1.25 ± 0.43 | 23.50 ± 6.85 | 1.48 ± 0.53 | 0.320 ± 0.005 | 0.295 ± 0.005 | 0.580 ± 0.005 |
HFHC + Cashew leaves | 1.18 ± 0.12 * | 3.46 ± 0.33 * | 40.77 ± 3.85 | 3.86 ± 0.21 | 0.191 ± 0.005 | 0.291 ± 0.005 | 0.591 ± 0.005 | |
HFHC + Fiber | 1.14 ± 0.12 * | 3.60 ± 0.45 * | 41.23 ± 3.15 | 4.05 ± 0.30 | 0.186 ± 0.004 | 0.287 ± 0.004 | 0.586 ± 0.004 | |
HFHC + AO 10 mg/kg | 0.31 ± 0.04 *** | 6.66 ± 0.74 *** | 71.57 ± 8.25 *** | 7.93 ± 1.14 *** | 0.097 ± 0.005 ** | 0.199 ± 0.005 ** | 0.451 ± 0.005 ** | |
F-test, p-value | F(4,20) = 64.74, p-value < 0.001 | F(4,20) = 73.18, p-value < 0.001 | F(4,20) = 94.76, p-value < 0.001 | F(4,20) = 154.10, p-value < 0.001 | F(4,20) = 34.54, p-value < 0.01 | F(4,20) = 24.25, p-value < 0.01 | F(4,20) = 14.10, p-value < 0.01 | |
Hippocampus | HFHC + Vehicle | 2.33 ± 0.25 | 1.16 ± 0.24 | 3.52 ± 0.09 | 0.99 ± 0.16 | 0.121 ± 0.001 | 1.075 ± 0.021 | 0.611 ± 0.001 |
HFHC + Cashew leaves | 2.08 ± 0.31 | 1.50 ± 0.24 | 2.78 ± 0.25 | 1.70 ± 0.24 | 0.101 ± 0.002 * | 1.101 ± 0.025 | 0.601 ± 0.002 | |
HFHC + Fiber | 2.70 ± 0.22 | 1.80 ± 0.27 | 2.38 ± 0.27 | 1.68 ± 0.21 | 0.117 ± 0.002 | 0.970 ± 0.022 | 0.597 ± 0.002 | |
HFHC + AO 10 mg/kg | 0.52 ± 0.02 * | 4.09 ± 0.33 * | 14.90 ± 1.36 ** | 5.77 ± 0.96 * | 0.078 ± 0.002 *** | 0.968 ± 0.012 | 0.355 ± 0.002 *** | |
F-test, p-value | F(4,20) = 9.53, p-value < 0.05 | F(4,20) = 10.75, p-value < 0.05 | F(4,20) = 45.85, p-value < 0.01 | F(4,20) = 10.84, p-value < 0.05 | F(4,20) = 103.42, p-value < 0.001 | F(4,20) = 1.16, p-value < =0.511 | F(4,20) = 54.66, p-value < 0.001 |
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Srichomphu, P.; Wattanathorn, J.; Thukham-mee, W.; Muchimapura, S. Anxiety, Insomnia, and Memory Impairment in Metabolic Syndrome Rats Are Alleviated by the Novel Functional Ingredients from Anacardium occidentale. Antioxidants 2022, 11, 2203. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11112203
Srichomphu P, Wattanathorn J, Thukham-mee W, Muchimapura S. Anxiety, Insomnia, and Memory Impairment in Metabolic Syndrome Rats Are Alleviated by the Novel Functional Ingredients from Anacardium occidentale. Antioxidants. 2022; 11(11):2203. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11112203
Chicago/Turabian StyleSrichomphu, Pratthana, Jintanaporn Wattanathorn, Wipawee Thukham-mee, and Supaporn Muchimapura. 2022. "Anxiety, Insomnia, and Memory Impairment in Metabolic Syndrome Rats Are Alleviated by the Novel Functional Ingredients from Anacardium occidentale" Antioxidants 11, no. 11: 2203. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11112203