Prevalence and Predictors of Osteoporosis Among the Chinese Population in Klang Valley, Malaysia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Inclusion Criteria | Exclusion Criteria |
---|---|
Malaysian aged ≥40 years | Previously diagnosed with metabolic bone diseases (Paget’s disease, osteogenesis imperfect, osteomalacia, rickets) |
Residing in Klang Valley, Malaysia | Diagnosed with conditions that alter bone metabolism (hypo-/hyper-calcemia, hypo-/hyper-thyroidism, hypo-/hyper-gonadism) |
Receiving therapeutic agents that alter bone metabolism (thiazide diuretics, glucocorticoids, thyroid supplements, anticonvulsants, antidepressants, osteoporosis treatment agents, etc.) | |
Having mobility problems, need a walking aid, fractured six months prior to the screening date, having metal implants at the calcaneus, hip, spine, or femoral neck | |
Suffered a low impact fracture after the age of 50 years |
Variables | Categories | Mean | Standard Deviation |
---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 59.14 | 8.96 | |
Age of menarche (years) | 13.12 | 1.79 | |
Age of menopause (years) | 51.31 | 3.44 | |
Years since menopause (years) | 10.17 | 7.22 | |
Body Anthropometry | Weight (kg) | 61.81 | 10.66 |
Height (cm) | 161.58 | 8.23 | |
BMI (kg/m2) | 23.59 | 3.25 | |
Body fat (%) | 33.03 | 6.53 | |
Lean body mass (kg) | 39.33 | 8.04 | |
Waist circumference (cm) | 82.47 | 11.17 | |
N | % | ||
Age Range (years) | 40–50 | 71 | 19.3 |
51–60 | 125 | 34.1 | |
61–70 | 128 | 34.9 | |
71 and above | 43 | 11.7 | |
Sex | Male | 182 | 49.6 |
Female | 185 | 50.4 | |
Marital Status | Single | 33 | 9.0 |
Married | 334 | 91.0 | |
Nature of Occupation | Manual | 22 | 6.0 |
Sedentary | 345 | 94.0 | |
Estimated Monthly Income | B40 | 351 | 95.6 |
M40 | 16 | 4.4 | |
BMI Classification | Underweight | 53 | 14.4 |
Normal | 210 | 57.2 | |
Overweight | 104 | 28.3 | |
Highest Education Level | No formal education or Primary school | 39 | 10.6 |
Secondary school | 179 | 48.8 | |
Certificate/diploma | 89 | 24.3 | |
University degree or above | 60 | 16.3 | |
Parity | Nulliparous | 34 | 18.4 |
1–3 pregnancies | 99 | 53.5 | |
More than 3 pregnancies | 52 | 28.1 | |
Current Menstrual Status | Pre-menopause | 31 | 16.8 |
Peri-menopause | 22 | 11.9 | |
Menopause | 132 | 71.4 | |
Diabetes Mellitus | Yes | 20 | 5.4 |
No | 347 | 94.6 | |
Hypertension | Yes | 74 | 20.2 |
No | 293 | 79.8 | |
Hypercholesterolemia | Yes | 78 | 21.3 |
No | 289 | 78.7 | |
Gout | Yes | 16 | 4.4 |
No | 351 | 95.6 |
Demographic Details | Categories | Bone Health Status | p-Value | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Normal | Osteopenia | Osteoporosis | Total | |||||||
n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | |||
Age (years) | 40–50 | 30 | 42.3 | 38 | 53.5 | 3 | 4.2 | 71 | 100 | <0.001 |
51–60 | 49 | 39.2 | 65 | 52.0 | 11 | 8.8 | 125 | 100 | ||
61–70 | 38 | 29.7 | 62 | 48.4 | 28 | 21.9 | 128 | 100 | ||
71 and above | 13 | 30.2 | 16 | 37.2 | 14 | 32.6 | 43 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 130 | 35.4 | 181 | 49.3 | 56 | 15.3 | 367 | 100 | ||
Sex | Male | 78 | 42.9 | 83 | 45.6 | 21 | 11.5 | 182 | 100 | <0.05 |
Female | 52 | 28.1 | 98 | 53.0 | 35 | 18.9 | 185 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 130 | 35.4 | 181 | 49.3 | 56 | 15.3 | 367 | 100 | ||
Nature of Job | Sedentary | 121 | 35.1 | 169 | 49.0 | 55 | 15.9 | 345 | 100 | 0.352 |
Manual | 9 | 40.9 | 12 | 54.5 | 1 | 4.5 | 22 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 130 | 35.4 | 181 | 49.3 | 56 | 15.3 | 367 | 100 | ||
Monthly Income | B40 | 121 | 34.5 | 177 | 50.4 | 53 | 15.1 | 351 | 100 | 0.123 |
M40 | 9 | 56.3 | 4 | 25.0 | 3 | 18.8 | 16 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 130 | 35.4 | 181 | 49.3 | 56 | 15.3 | 367 | 100 | ||
Education Level | No formal education and Primary school | 10 | 25.6 | 17 | 43.6 | 12 | 30.8 | 39 | 100 | 0.119 |
Secondary school | 62 | 34.6 | 89 | 49.7 | 28 | 15.6 | 179 | 100 | ||
Certificate/Diploma | 34 | 38.2 | 45 | 50.6 | 10 | 11.2 | 89 | 100 | ||
University degree and above | 24 | 40.0 | 30 | 50.0 | 6 | 10.0 | 60 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 130 | 35.4 | 181 | 49.3 | 56 | 15.3 | 367 | 100 | ||
Body Mass Index (BMI) | Underweight | 9 | 17.0 | 23 | 43.4 | 21 | 39.6 | 53 | 100 | <0.001 |
Normal | 65 | 31.0 | 116 | 55.2 | 29 | 13.8 | 210 | 100 | ||
Overweight | 56 | 53.8 | 42 | 40.4 | 6 | 5.8 | 104 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 130 | 35.4 | 181 | 49.3 | 56 | 15.3 | 367 | 100 | ||
Parity | Nulliparous | 9 | 26.5 | 22 | 64.7 | 3 | 8.8 | 34 | 100 | 0.416 |
1–3 pregnancies | 27 | 27.3 | 52 | 52.5 | 20 | 20.2 | 99 | 100 | ||
More than 3 pregnancies | 16 | 30.8 | 24 | 46.2 | 12 | 23.1 | 52 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 52 | 28.1 | 98 | 53 | 35 | 18.9 | 185 | 100 | ||
Current Menstrual Status | Pre-menopause | 17 | 54.8 | 14 | 45.2 | 0 | 0 | 31 | 100 | <0.001 |
Peri-menopause | 9 | 40.9 | 12 | 54.5 | 1 | 4.5 | 22 | 100 | ||
Menopause | 26 | 19.7 | 72 | 54.5 | 34 | 25.8 | 132 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 52 | 28.1 | 98 | 53 | 35 | 18.9 | 185 | 100 | ||
Reason of Menopause | Iatrogenic | 1 | 12.5 | 7 | 87.5 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 100 | 0.128 |
Natural | 25 | 20.2 | 65 | 52.4 | 34 | 27.4 | 124 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 26 | 19.7 | 72 | 54.5 | 34 | 25.8 | 132 | 100 | ||
Dairy Intake | Regularly | 42 | 36.8 | 55 | 48.2 | 17 | 14.9 | 114 | 100 | 0.930 |
Do not drink | 88 | 34.8 | 126 | 49.8 | 39 | 15.4 | 253 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 130 | 35.4 | 181 | 49.3 | 56 | 15.3 | 367 | 100 | ||
Coffee/Tea Intake | Regularly | 108 | 36.5 | 146 | 49.3 | 42 | 14.2 | 296 | 100 | 0.441 |
Do not drink | 22 | 31 | 35 | 49.3 | 14 | 19.7 | 71 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 130 | 35.4 | 181 | 49.3 | 56 | 15.3 | 367 | 100 | ||
Calcium Supplement Intake | Regularly | 17 | 26.2 | 35 | 53.8 | 13 | 20 | 65 | 100 | 0.182 |
Never | 113 | 37.4 | 146 | 48.3 | 43 | 14.2 | 302 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 130 | 35.4 | 181 | 49.3 | 56 | 15.3 | 367 | 100 | ||
Smoking Status | Ever-smoker | 25 | 39.1 | 32 | 50.0 | 7 | 10.9 | 64 | 100 | 0.536 |
Never | 105 | 34.7 | 149 | 49.2 | 49 | 16.2 | 303 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 130 | 35.4 | 181 | 49.3 | 56 | 15.3 | 367 | 100 | ||
Alcohol Intake | Ever-drinker | 58 | 40.8 | 62 | 43.7 | 22 | 15.5 | 142 | 100 | 0.180 |
Never | 72 | 32 | 119 | 52.9 | 34 | 15.1 | 225 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 130 | 35.4 | 181 | 49.3 | 56 | 15.3 | 367 | 100 | ||
Physical Activity status | Inactive | 47 | 35.9 | 62 | 47.3 | 22 | 16.8 | 131 | 100 | 0.349 |
Moderately-active | 56 | 35.2 | 85 | 53.5 | 18 | 11.3 | 159 | 100 | ||
HEPA-active | 27 | 35.1 | 34 | 44.2 | 16 | 20.8 | 77 | 100 | ||
TOTAL | 130 | 35.4 | 181 | 49.3 | 56 | 15.3 | 367 | 100 |
Variables | Odds Ratio (OR) | 95% CI for OR | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | |||
Overall (among both sexes) | ||||
Age | 1.110 | 1.060 | 1.162 | <0.001 |
Body weight | 0.885 | 0.840 | 0.933 | <0.001 |
Low monthly income | 11.292 | 2.349 | 54.282 | 0.002 |
Sub-analysis among men | ||||
Lean mass | 0.9997 | 0.9995 | 0.9998 | <0.001 |
Sub-analysis among women | ||||
Lean mass | 0.9997 | 0.9995 | 0.9999 | 0.002 |
Calcium supplement intake | 4.163 | 1.274 | 13.606 | 0.018 |
Body mass index (BMI): | ||||
Underweight vs. normal | 3.543 | 1.029 | 12.198 | 0.045 |
Overweight vs. normal | 0.517 | 0.087 | 3.066 | 0.467 |
Education: | ||||
Secondary school vs. no formal education/primary school | 0.112 | 0.021 | 0.589 | 0.010 |
Certificate/diploma vs. no formal education/primary school | 0.062 | 0.009 | 0.453 | 0.006 |
University degree and above vs. no formal education/primary school | 0.037 | 0.003 | 0.437 | 0.009 |
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Share and Cite
Subramaniam, S.; Chan, C.-Y.; Soelaiman, I.-N.; Mohamed, N.; Muhammad, N.; Ahmad, F.; Abd Manaf, M.R.; Ng, P.-Y.; Jamil, N.A.; Chin, K.-Y. Prevalence and Predictors of Osteoporosis Among the Chinese Population in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1820. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9091820
Subramaniam S, Chan C-Y, Soelaiman I-N, Mohamed N, Muhammad N, Ahmad F, Abd Manaf MR, Ng P-Y, Jamil NA, Chin K-Y. Prevalence and Predictors of Osteoporosis Among the Chinese Population in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Applied Sciences. 2019; 9(9):1820. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9091820
Chicago/Turabian StyleSubramaniam, Shaanthana, Chin-Yi Chan, Ima-Nirwana Soelaiman, Norazlina Mohamed, Norliza Muhammad, Fairus Ahmad, Mohd Rizal Abd Manaf, Pei-Yuen Ng, Nor Aini Jamil, and Kok-Yong Chin. 2019. "Prevalence and Predictors of Osteoporosis Among the Chinese Population in Klang Valley, Malaysia" Applied Sciences 9, no. 9: 1820. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9091820