Optimization of Physics Learning Through Immersive Virtual Reality: A Study on the Efficacy of Serious Games

Abstract

Background: Integrating serious games in immersive virtual reality (IVR) enhances university physics education by addressing student motivation and engagement challenges. Traditional methods often fail to link abstract concepts with real-world applications, reducing interest. IVR and serious games create interactive environments that dynamically reinforce complex scientific principles, improving learning experiences. Methodology: A pre- and post-experimental design was conducted with 17 Physics 1 students from Universidad Tecnologica de Pereira (UTP). The participants were assessed before engaging with “Parabolic Basketball VR” to measure their initial understanding of projectile motion. After gameplay, post-intervention evaluations were conducted to analyze learning outcomes. Results: The intervention significantly improved students’ understanding, with post-intervention scores notably higher. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test (p = 0.007, Z = −2.687) confirmed a substantial increase in scores, demonstrating the game’s effectiveness in enhancing conceptual learning. Conclusions: “Parabolic Basketball VR” effectively enhances learning of projectile motion through immersive and interactive experiences. The significant improvements observed confirm the potential of integrating well-designed serious games into physics education, suggesting that these tools can significantly enhance both the theoretical understanding and practical application of complex scientific concepts. This study underscores the importance of aligning educational content with interactive gameplay to achieve learning objectives, providing a valuable approach for future educational strategies in scientific disciplines.

1. Introduction

Integrating immersive virtual reality (IVR)-based serious games into university physics education has been explored as a potential strategy to address challenges in student motivation and engagement with this discipline [1]. Physics is often perceived as an abstract and conceptually demanding subject, a perception that may be exacerbated by traditional teaching methods that emphasize theoretical derivations over practical applications. This approach has been associated with reduced engagement and difficulties in knowledge retention [2,3,4]. Given the importance of physics and mathematics in academic and professional training within science and engineering-related disciplines, identifying effective instructional approaches is essential, particularly in addressing high dropout rates partly attributed to difficulties in these subjects [5].

The use of IVR-based serious games in physics education has been proposed due to their ability to create interactive virtual environments that facilitate the development of mental representations of scientific concepts [6,7,8]. This approach is expected to support the learning process by enabling students to engage with dynamic simulations that connect theoretical content to practical applications. Through interactive experimentation, IVR-based serious games allow students to manipulate variables, observe outcomes in real time, and develop problem-solving strategies [9,10].

1.1. IVR-Based Serious Games in the Context of Digital Learning Tools

Various digital tools have been used in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education to enhance conceptual learning. These include interactive simulations, educational applications, video-based instructional content, and augmented reality (AR). Each of these tools provides specific benefits, but they also present limitations in addressing the challenges of teaching kinematic concepts such as projectile motion:

• Interactive simulations (e.g., PhET-based tools) provide visual representations of physics phenomena but typically do not allow for embodied interaction or real-time experimental adjustments [11];
• Educational applications and video-based learning serve as reinforcement tools, but they do not facilitate direct manipulation of physical parameters [12];
• AR technologies enhance visualization, but they generally lack full immersion and the capacity for deep interaction with simulated physical systems [13].

IVR-based serious games present an alternative framework by integrating immersion, interactivity, and feedback mechanisms that may support both conceptual understanding and engagement. In contrast to traditional digital tools, IVR allows students to manipulate projectile motion parameters (e.g., launch angle and velocity), observe instantaneous effects, and refine their understanding through an iterative process. Furthermore, elements such as progressive task structures and real-time adaptation provide a learning environment that responds dynamically to students’ interactions, potentially improving knowledge acquisition and retention [14].

The integration of IVR-based serious games into formal education requires consideration of pedagogical alignment and collaboration between educators and content developers [15]. Ensuring that these technological resources complement rather than replace conventional instruction is essential for their effective implementation [16]. Additionally, an understanding of physics principles, instructional design methodologies, and learner needs is required for the development of educationally relevant IVR applications [17]. Establishing mechanisms for evaluating the impact of these tools is also necessary, allowing for data-driven refinements that optimize both instructional effectiveness and user experience [18,19,20].

1.2. Contribution of This Study

This study examines the application of IVR-based serious games in physics education through “Parabolic Basketball VR”, a serious game designed to support the learning of projectile motion [21]. This research presents a structured analysis of how IVR-based serious games can be designed and implemented to enhance conceptual understanding of kinematics. Specifically, the study focuses on the interactive features of IVR for physics education, investigating their role in supporting active experimentation and real-time feedback.

The key contributions of this research include the following:

• The development of “Parabolic Basketball VR”, a serious game implemented in IVR to support conceptual understanding of projectile motion through interactive problem-solving and motion analysis;
• An empirical evaluation of the game’s effectiveness, using a structured pre- and post-experimental design to assess learning outcomes, engagement, and usability;
• A comparative discussion of IVR-based serious games and existing educational technologies, emphasizing their respective roles in physics education and identifying potential advantages and limitations.

This study contributes to the ongoing discussion on IVR applications in STEM education by providing empirical data on how IVR-based serious games can be structured to facilitate physics learning. The findings offer insights into pedagogical strategies that integrate interactive technologies with established instructional methodologies to optimize educational outcomes.

1.3. Related Work

1.3.1. IVR Education

IVR has proven to be a transformative tool in education, providing intuitive and experiential learning environments that facilitate the understanding of complex scientific concepts [22]. Unlike traditional teaching methods, IVR enables active engagement with abstract principles by allowing students to interact dynamically with simulations, enhancing conceptual retention and cognitive processing [23]. The interactive nature of IVR environments surpasses many of the limitations of traditional methods, particularly in fields like physics and mathematics, where visualization plays a crucial role in understanding concepts such as motion, force, and trajectories [24].

Research has shown that IVR enhances student engagement and motivation, offering a more personalized and adaptive learning experience [25]. The ability to manipulate variables, such as velocity, acceleration, and angles in projectile motion, in real time enables students to explore cause-and-effect relationships in an immersive environment. This hands-on approach allows for deeper conceptual understanding, as students are no longer passive recipients of information but active experimenters within a virtual space. Furthermore, the integration of gamification elements in IVR has been linked to higher retention rates, suggesting that IVR-based learning could provide a sustainable alternative or complement to conventional pedagogical models [14,26].

1.3.2. Serious Games in Physics Education

Serious games have demonstrated a considerable positive impact on physics education, as they effectively combine entertainment with structured learning to reinforce academic performance and student motivation [27]. Unlike traditional problem-solving approaches, serious games leverage interactive storytelling, challenges, and simulations to present physics concepts in a more engaging and relatable manner [28]. These elements have been found to increase motivation, persistence, and conceptual retention, particularly for subjects that students often perceive as abstract or difficult [29].

Various studies have explored the role of serious games in facilitating physics learning, emphasizing their ability to provide dynamic, exploratory, and iterative learning experiences. For instance, research has demonstrated that students who engage with game-based simulations of mechanics and kinematics tend to achieve higher learning gains compared to those relying solely on traditional instruction [30,31]. Furthermore, the inclusion of real-time feedback within serious games enables students to identify and correct misconceptions immediately, reinforcing a constructivist learning approach that fosters deeper comprehension [32].

1.3.3. The Role of User-Centered Design in Serious Game Development

The adoption of user-centered design (UCD) methodologies has been instrumental in the development of effective educational games, ensuring that usability, engagement, and pedagogical value are optimized [33]. UCD emphasizes the iterative incorporation of feedback from students and teachers throughout the design process, allowing for refinements that align game mechanics with educational goals [34,35]. Research has shown that games designed with direct user feedback exhibit higher adoption rates, as they better address students’ learning preferences and reduce cognitive overload that could arise from complex interactions [36].

Serious games that follow UCD principles are more likely to be effective because they integrate intuitive interfaces, adaptive difficulty levels, and immediate feedback mechanisms. These elements help maintain student engagement while ensuring that learning objectives are met in a progressive and structured manner. Moreover, incorporating educator input into game design enhances alignment with curriculum standards, making the games more viable for classroom integration [37].

1.3.4. Integrating IVR and Serious Games for Physics Learning

The integration of IVR and serious games has emerged as a promising approach in STEM education, providing highly interactive and immersive experiences that enhance conceptual understanding [38]. Several studies have explored the synergistic effects of IVR and gamified learning [39], demonstrating that these technologies can significantly improve students’ ability to grasp motion-related physics concepts [40].

Unlike traditional physics simulations, IVR-based serious games offer real-time experimentation, where students can manipulate launch angles, velocities, and trajectories in an interactive setting. This combination fosters higher-order thinking skills, allowing students to formulate hypotheses, test them in a controlled environment, and refine their understanding based on observed outcomes. Research by [6,41] highlights that students who use IVR-based serious games for physics learning show not only improved test scores but also greater confidence in applying concepts to real-world scenarios.

Despite these advantages, evaluating the effectiveness of IVR-based serious games remains an ongoing challenge. Comparative studies and case analyses, such as those outlined in [42], have underscored both the benefits and challenges of integrating these technologies into classrooms. The need for continuous evaluation and evidence-based adjustments is fundamental to optimizing serious game applications in IVR. This includes adaptations based on user feedback and empirical studies, ensuring that these tools evolve to meet educational demands effectively [6].

While IVR and serious games have shown independent success in enhancing physics learning, the full potential of combining both methodologies has yet to be fully explored. Our study contributes to this emerging field by introducing “Parabolic Basketball VR”, a game specifically designed to teach projectile motion through a gamified IVR experience. Unlike prior IVR-based physics applications, this game incorporates real-time trajectory visualization, interactive control over variables, and gamified challenges, making it a unique tool for learning kinematics in an engaging and scientifically rigorous manner.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Context

Projectile motion is a physical phenomenon that describes the curved trajectory followed by an object thrown into the air with an initial velocity directed at any angle, assuming (primarily) two conditions: first, that the acceleration due to gravity is constant, which is a valid approximation for horizontal displacements insignificantly compared to the Earth’s radius; and second, that air resistance is ignored, an assumption that may not be accurate for objects with rapid movements [43]. This type of motion, also known as projectile motion, occurs in a two-dimensional plane and results from the combination of two independent components: one vertical, characterized by free fall under constant acceleration, and one horizontal, maintaining a constant velocity. The optimal trajectory to achieve maximum projectile range is achieved by launching it at a 45° angle; however, increasing the angle will increase both the maximum height reached and the total flight time. An interesting variant is a horizontal launch, which demonstrates the independence of vertical and horizontal movements (See Figure 1). Within a context where gravity is constant, and air resistance is ignored, the trajectory followed by any projectile is modeled as a parabola, an observation that has practical applications in both sports and ballistic projectile analysis [43].

2.2. Parabolic Basketball VR

An interdisciplinary team dedicated to developing a serious game on projectile motion was formed with the participation of various professional figures [44]: a physics professor responsible for providing pedagogical guidance on key concepts, a serious game designer focused on creating clear and educational gameplay mechanics, a participant experience researcher to organize testing sessions, two game programmers who developed prototypes, and four participants (two teachers and two students) who provided direct feedback on the system. Over a period of two months, this team held weekly meetings to discuss game requirements, explore applicable technologies, and define project scope. The project culminated in the creation of a prototype in the Unity game engine, based on ideas generated throughout this collaborative process. For the preliminary design of the IVR serious game, a proactive approach to improving projectile motion teaching was proposed. Initially, an online questionnaire was proposed to physics students at the UTP, seeking to understand their limitations and motivations regarding the study of this physical phenomenon. Based on this information, a structured development model was implemented in three phases: requirements analysis, prototyping, and evaluation [45]. This methodology allowed for the identification of the needs and preferences of the involved students and teachers, facilitating the creation of an educational serious game centered on projectile motion.

The result was “Parabolic Basketball VR”—an IVR serious game designed to teach projectile motion through a basketball game in which players must score baskets from different positions, demonstrating how launch angle and velocity affect the ball’s trajectory [21]. Developed in Unity 3D and designed to be played on the Oculus Quest 2, the game aimed to balance entertainment with learning (See Figure 2) [46].

Playtesting sessions were organized with specific target groups: teachers and students. These sessions aimed to iterate on playable prototypes to improve gameplay and align the game more closely with educational objectives [47]. Playtests were conducted in two phases, first with teachers to obtain expert evaluations of the game’s alignment with educational objectives and then with students to gather impressions on gameplay and practical learning. Each playtest session was recorded on video to facilitate a detailed review and subsequent discussion on potential improvements. The serious game development process involved close collaboration among professionals from different disciplines, focusing on adjusting game design and mechanics based on collected feedback. This collaborative approach allowed for the creation of an educational game that not only teaches projectile motion interactively and engagingly but also aligns with end participants’ needs and expectations, promoting a more effective and enjoyable learning experience.

Game Mechanics and Learning Approach

The serious game “Parabolic Basketball VR” was designed as an educational tool for teaching projectile motion to university students, integrating a realistic simulation environment with interactive gameplay mechanics. Inspired by basketball, the serious game places the user as the protagonist inside a virtual stadium, where they must execute ball throws while adjusting key variables such as launch angle and velocity. The physics simulation of the ball’s behavior has been developed using precise equation programming to accurately reflect parabolic trajectories in a gamified context. Additionally, the design of the environment and objects, such as the hoop, backboard, and ball, follows a semi-realistic 3D aesthetic, ensuring an immersive experience that reinforces the learning of fundamental physics concepts.

The serious game is structured into two main phases: Training and Practice. In the Training phase, students receive instructions on the principles of projectile motion, the variables influencing the ball’s trajectory, and how these can be manipulated within the game. Interactive explanations are provided alongside visual simulations, allowing students to observe how the initial velocity and launch angle affect the projectile’s path. During the Practice phase, players must score from different positions around the court, adjusting their shots based on prior learning. To reinforce understanding, the game provides real-time visual feedback on the values of the involved variables and offers either positive reinforcement or corrective guidance based on player performance.

The game mechanics include key elements of interaction and learning. The gameplay environment is set in an empty basketball stadium, where the player controls the ball from a first-person perspective. The actions include grabbing, throwing, and adjusting shooting parameters, and the execution time is regulated to allow experimentation with different configurations. The simulation reinforces learning through direct observation and experimentation, enabling students to strategically plan their shots. Additionally, the rules system incorporates pedagogical guides, rewarding correct shots and displaying instructional messages in case of mistakes. This structure not only enhances the understanding of projectile motion but also fosters motivation through gamification, making learning a more dynamic and effective experience.

2.3. Pilot Study

This study focuses on exploring the feasibility of “Parabolic Basketball VR”, an IVR serious game, as an innovative pedagogical tool for teaching and learning projectile motion. Gamifying complex educational concepts offers a potentially rich avenue for improving student engagement and knowledge retention. In particular, projectile motion, a fundamental topic in physics, presents unique challenges for teaching through traditional methods. The present research was designed as a pilot study to evaluate the learning of the projectile motion concept in students interacting with “Parabolic Basketball VR”. The hypothesis that the immersion and interactivity provided by IVR would facilitate a deeper and applied understanding of the subject was established.

2.3.1. Experimental Protocol

This study implemented a single-case experimental design [48], focusing on assessing the impact of the serious game “Parabolic Basketball VR” on the learning of the projectile motion concept. The decision to use an independent design approach, with all participants exposed to the same experimental condition, was based on the goal of maximizing the homogeneity of learning experiences and minimizing external variables [49]. This methodological strategy allowed for a direct and focused evaluation of the effects of the educational intervention, facilitating a clear interpretation of the results [50].

2.3.2. Participants

The target group consisted of 17 Physics 1 students from the UTP, with a mean age of 18.5 years (SD = 1.45), all in their second academic semester. This representative cohort came from a diverse range of academic programs within engineering and applied sciences, selected for their outstanding academic performance in areas related to kinematics. This careful selection ensured that the participants had a favorable academic predisposition towards the game’s content, optimizing the intervention’s potential to significantly impact their learning. Inclusion in the study was conditioned on specific criteria designed to create a cohesive participant set that was compatible with the research objectives. Exclusion criteria were established to mitigate potential confounding variables that could affect the interpretation of the study results (See

Table 1. Demographic data of the study participants.

Student	Gender	Age	Academic Program
1	F	18	Industrial Chemistry
2	M	18	Systems Engineering
3	M	18	Agroindustrial Engineering
4	M	20	Agroindustrial Engineering
5	M	18	Systems Engineering
6	M	18	Industrial Engineering
7	M	18	Industrial Engineering
8	F	17	Systems Engineering
9	M	20	Systems Engineering
10	M	18	Systems Engineering
11	M	18	Wood Engineering
12	F	23	Agroindustrial Engineering
13	F	19	Systems Engineering
14	F	19	Agroindustrial Engineering
15	M	19	Systems Engineering
16	M	16	Systems Engineering
17	M	18	Systems Engineering

).

2.3.3. Experimental Setup

The central intervention of the study was the interaction with “Parabolic Basketball VR” executed on a high-spec Dell G3 computer featuring an Intel Core i5 processor and an NVIDIA GeForce graphics card. The use of the Meta Quest 2 (Meta Platforms, Inc., Menlo Park, CA, USA), chosen for its portability and usability, allowed for an IVR experience. This setup took place in the Physical Instrumentation laboratory of the UTP, ensuring a controlled and conducive environment for the virtual learning experience. Special attention was paid to facilitating a smooth and natural interaction with the game under the supervision and guidance of the research team to maximize the educational potential of the session.

2.3.4. Ethical Considerations

The study was reviewed and approved by the bioethics committee of the UTP, registered with code 61-090821, ensuring that all procedures met the highest ethical standards. Voluntary participation was a fundamental pillar, with each student providing informed consent after a detailed explanation of the study objectives, the procedures involved, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequences. This rigorous ethical approach not only complied with institutional and academic requirements but also fostered an environment of respect and trust between the researchers and participants.

2.4. Procedure

2.4.1. Study Introduction and Participant Preparation

At the UTP, a controlled environment was set up to interact with “Parabolic Basketball VR”. Individual appointments were scheduled for each student, maintaining one hour between them, and rigorous biosafety protocols were implemented. Each participant was thoroughly briefed on the study procedures, and their informed consent was ensured before any activity.

2.4.2. Pre-Intervention Evaluation

Before the gaming session, students were administered a conceptual questionnaire designed to assess their prior knowledge of projectile motion. This assessment instrument consisted of multiple-choice questions focused on the fundamental principles of projectile motion, aiming to measure conceptual understanding without relying on memorization.

2.4.3. Gaming Session with “Parabolic Basketball VR”

Students were immersed in the IVR environment of the serious game, receiving clear instructions on control handling and game mechanics. They were granted a brief familiarization period of 5 min with the system, followed by an active gaming session of approximately 20 min. Equipped with the Meta Quest 2 headset and situated in a pre-set gaming area, participants were free to explore the game under the initial guidance of the researcher, who initiated the game from a computer. The session focused on allowing students to practically apply projectile motion concepts in an interactive platform, progressing through the game levels until its conclusion, either by completing all levels or until the end of the gaming session (See Figure 3).

2.4.4. Post-Intervention Evaluation

Following the gaming session, the same conceptual questionnaire was readministered to participants. A direct comparison of the scores obtained before and after the intervention provided a quantitative measure of learning and the retention of knowledge acquired through interaction with the serious game. At the end of each session, disinfection procedures for all equipment used were carried out, preparing the space safely for the next participant. This cycle was carefully repeated, ensuring methodological consistency and the safety of all involved.

2.4.5. Conceptual Assessment Instrument

The instrument used to evaluate the understanding of the projectile motion concept was a conceptual questionnaire specifically designed to measure comprehension of the fundamental principles of this physical phenomenon. This questionnaire consisted of five multiple-choice questions, developed and validated by the Biomedical Engineering and Forensic Sciences Research Group (BIOIF) at the UTP. Each question addressed key aspects of projectile motion, allowing for a detailed evaluation of participants’ conceptual knowledge.

2.4.6. Questions from the Questionnaire

• Calculating maximum height: Students were asked to identify which variable equals zero when the projectile reaches its maximum height;
• Determining projectile position: Participants were required to specify the variables necessary to calculate a projectile’s position at any given moment;
• Horizontal motion: Students needed to identify the variable that must be replaced with zero to derive the formulas applicable to horizontal motion;
• Sign of total velocity: This question evaluated the students’ understanding of the sign of total velocity at different stages of projectile motion or horizontal motion;
• Reference system: Students were tasked with determining where to conveniently place the origin of the reference system when launching an object from an elevated position.

The questionnaire aimed not to assess memorization skills but to evaluate students’ ability to reason and apply concepts related to projectile motion. This instrument was administered both before and after the intervention with the “Parabolic Basketball VR” serious game, enabling the measurement of changes in participants’ conceptual understanding and assessing the effectiveness of the pedagogical tool (See Appendix A).

2.4.7. Evaluation Criteria and Data Analysis

The analysis of the collected data was conducted using various methods and criteria:

• Improvement in scores: The statistical significance of improvements in total pre- and post-test scores was calculated using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test [51], providing a solid basis for interpreting the results. Additionally, the average scores for each question were analyzed to understand the behavior of the scores in detail;
• Normalized gain (Hake’s gain): To assess overall improvement, normalized gain was utilized, calculated using the formula g = (Ppost − Ppre)/(Pmax − Ppre), where Pmax is the maximum possible score. This measure offers insight into the overall effectiveness of learning facilitated by the serious game [14];
• Game performance: Game performance, based on metrics such as points earned and levels completed, was correlated with improvement in conceptual knowledge. This multidimensional approach allowed for a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between serious game interaction and student learning.

This comprehensive methodological procedure not only enables a rigorous evaluation of the educational impact of “Parabolic Basketball VR” but also provides a framework for future research on gamification in learning complex concepts (See Figure 4).

3. Results

3.1. Improvement in Scores

The conceptual assessment administered to 17 students following a master class on projectile motion showed an initial average score of M = 2.05 and SD = 1.02. After engaging with the serious game “Parabolic Basketball VR”, the average score significantly increased to M = 4.47 and SD = 0.62, as illustrated in Figure 5. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test confirmed statistical significance (p = 0.007; Z = −2.687). This result highlights the effectiveness of IVR in facilitating an understanding of complex concepts and the value of interactive methodologies in education. The improvement observed across all evaluated questions (See Figure 6) further supports the ability of serious games to promote meaningful and lasting learning.

A detailed question-by-question analysis showed significant improvement, especially in questions 3 and 4, which addressed horizontal motion and projectile trajectory. This granular analysis reflects the game’s ability to reinforce specific concepts and address common challenges in understanding kinematics.

3.2. Normalized Gain (Hake Gain)

The Hake’s normalized gain was calculated using a pre-intervention average score of 2.05, a post-intervention average of 4.47, and a maximum possible score of 5, resulting in a value of 0.82. This value indicates a substantial improvement in academic performance, demonstrating that the IVR-based serious game effectively enhanced students’ understanding of projectile motion. A normalized gain of this magnitude is recognized in educational research as a significant and positive shift, emphasizing the role of immersive and interactive technologies in improving learning outcomes.

3.3. Performance in the Game

The results of performance within “Parabolic Basketball VR” are presented in Figure 7, showing average scores by gender. The analysis revealed the following:

• Female students: Average score: 19.2 (SD = 9.23, n = 5);
• Male students: Average score: 25.17 (SD = 7.3, n = 12).

This analysis suggests that male students achieved a higher number of successful shots on average. Potential reasons for this difference include prior familiarity with serious games or IVR technology, practice time, or individual differences in motor skills and game strategies. Additionally, differences in perceived challenge and competitiveness between genders could play a role.

Despite the score gap, the wide score variability, indicated by the error bars representing standard deviations, highlights significant performance overlap between groups. This variability suggests that the game can accommodate different learning profiles and skill levels, making it a versatile educational tool.

Figure 7. Comparative performance (by gender) in “Parabolic Basketball VR”.

Figure 7. Comparative performance (by gender) in “Parabolic Basketball VR”.

4. Discussion

The findings of this study reveal significantly positive outcomes in the teaching of projectile motion through the use of the serious game “Parabolic Basketball VR”. The pre- and post-experimental design enabled a structured evaluation of conceptual understanding, demonstrating a notable improvement in student learning [52]. This was evidenced by a substantial increase in assessment scores and a high normalized learning gain [1]. These results highlight not only the pedagogical effectiveness of integrating serious games in IVR into the curriculum but also their potential to transform learning experiences by fostering deeper knowledge appropriation through active engagement and experimentation [53].

From an experiential learning perspective, this study underscores the role of interactive environments in knowledge appropriation [54], particularly for abstract concepts like projectile motion. Traditional instructional methods often emphasize theoretical derivations and formulaic applications, which can hinder students’ ability to internalize and apply fundamental principles in real-world scenarios [55]. In contrast, IVR-based serious games offer a constructivist approach, where learners actively engage with the content, exploring and validating concepts through direct experience [56]. The IVR nature enables students to visualize projectile trajectories dynamically, reinforcing their understanding through repeated, hands-on experimentation within the virtual environment [57]. This active interaction fosters cognitive engagement, which has been linked to higher retention rates and improved conceptual understanding in STEM education [58].

A critical aspect influencing the learning gain observed in this study is the interplay between immersion, interactivity, and cognitive engagement [59]. The normalized gain of 0.82 suggests a substantial improvement in students’ ability to grasp the core principles of projectile motion after interacting with Parabolic Basketball VR. This gain can be attributed to the alignment of theoretical learning with practical application facilitated by the serious game. The ability to manipulate variables, observe real-time effects, and adjust trajectories within the virtual environment promotes a deeper understanding of motion mechanics, enhancing the transition from rote memorization to conceptual mastery. The observed increase in post-test scores aligns with research emphasizing the role of experiential learning in physics education, where interactive tools help bridge the gap between abstract knowledge and practical application [60].

4.1. Generational Context and the Transition from Adolescence to Early Adulthood

Another key dimension influencing the effectiveness of “Parabolic Basketball VR” is the generational profile of the participant university students in their transition from adolescence to early adulthood. This developmental stage represents a crucial period in cognitive and behavioral maturation, where students shift from passive learning to self-directed exploration and conceptual synthesis. The current generation of students, often classified as digital natives, has been immersed in technology from an early age, making them more receptive to interactive and immersive learning experiences compared to previous generations [61,62].

This study suggests that serious games in IVR can leverage the technological fluency of this generation to enhance engagement with traditionally challenging subjects like physics [8]. The incorporation of serious game-based learning aligns with their natural inclination toward gamified environments, problem-solving tasks, and experiential learning methodologies [63]. By integrating a digital medium familiar to them, “Parabolic Basketball VR” effectively captures their attention, making physics more accessible and engaging while promoting a higher level of intrinsic motivation. The ability to test hypotheses, analyze projectile behavior, and iteratively refine their approach within a simulated space fosters a deeper appropriation of knowledge, shifting from superficial engagement to conceptual integration and problem-solving competence [31].

4.2. Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practical Application in Physics Education

One of the persistent challenges in physics education is the disconnect between theoretical instruction and real-world application [64]. Traditional lecture-based methodologies, while effective for imparting structured knowledge, often fail to contextualize physics principles in tangible, relatable experiences. This leads to fragmented understanding and difficulty in transferring theoretical knowledge to practical scenarios. “Parabolic Basketball VR” serves as a pedagogical bridge, allowing students to actively experiment with projectile motion principles in an applied setting.

Unlike conventional problem-solving exercises, where students passively compute outcomes based on equations, the IVR experience engages learners in an interactive simulation, where they manipulate launch angles, velocities, and trajectories. This direct involvement enhances their spatial reasoning and predictive analysis skills, essential competencies for mastering kinematic concepts [65]. By embedding physics within a realistic, game-based framework, the learning experience becomes not only intellectually stimulating but also contextually meaningful, reinforcing long-term retention and conceptual fluidity [66].

4.3. Comparison with Existing Studies and Implications for Future Research

Several prior studies have examined the impact of IVR-based learning compared to traditional instructional methods in physics education [67,68]. Research has shown that IVR environments significantly enhance student engagement, motivation, and conceptual understanding by allowing learners to directly interact with scientific phenomena in immersive settings [69,70]. For instance, studies such as [8,71] have demonstrated that students using IVR for physics learning often outperform those in conventional classroom settings, particularly in areas requiring spatial reasoning and conceptual visualization.

However, while IVR-based learning provides an interactive and engaging alternative, it is not intended to replace traditional teaching methods but rather to complement them [60]. Physics education requires a structured learning approach, where lectures, problem-solving exercises, and theoretical discussions remain crucial for deepening conceptual understanding [72]. The integration of IVR-based serious games as a supplementary tool allows students to visualize and interact with abstract concepts, making the learning process more intuitive and engaging [73,74].

While our study demonstrated significant learning gains using “Parabolic Basketball VR”, the lack of a control group prevents direct comparisons with traditional instructional methods. Future research should address this gap by conducting randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that compare IVR-based learning with traditional classroom instruction, measuring not only immediate conceptual understanding but also long-term knowledge retention and the transferability of learning outcomes [75]. Additionally, factors such as cognitive load, engagement levels, and user experience should be analyzed to optimize the effectiveness of IVR-based educational tools [76,77].

By expanding the scope of experimental designs and incorporating control groups, future research can provide stronger empirical evidence on the comparative advantages of IVR-based physics education, ultimately informing best practices for integrating immersive learning technologies into academic curricula. A balanced approach, where IVR complements traditional teaching methods, has the potential to create a more effective and engaging physics education framework.

5. Conclusions

This study contributes to the field of physics education and immersive learning by demonstrating the potential of IVR serious games to support the teaching and learning of complex scientific concepts, specifically projectile motion. The integration of “Parabolic Basketball VR” into instructional strategies resulted in significant improvements in students’ conceptual understanding, as reflected in the high normalized learning gain (0.82). Additionally, the serious game fostered higher engagement and motivation, providing an interactive and experiential approach that complements traditional instructional methods.

The findings highlight that IVR environments, when designed with pedagogical intent, can serve as effective tools for knowledge acquisition, allowing students to actively experiment, predict outcomes, and immediately observe results. This interactive engagement helps bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application. Furthermore, the UCD approach applied in the development of the game ensured intuitive gameplay mechanics, aligning with the learning preferences of digital native students transitioning from adolescence to early adulthood.

While the results are promising, several areas for future research and development have been identified:

• Enhancing adaptive learning mechanisms: Future iterations of “Parabolic Basketball VR” could incorporate adaptive difficulty levels that respond to student performance, personalizing the learning experience and reinforcing conceptual understanding dynamically;
• Longitudinal studies on learning retention: Further research should explore whether the conceptual gains observed persist over time, assessing long-term retention and knowledge transfer regarding real-world problem-solving scenarios;
• Expanding usability and cognitive load assessment: As IVR-based learning tools continue to evolve, it is essential to investigate cognitive load implications, ensuring that interactive elements enhance, rather than hinder, conceptual processing. Future usability studies should also examine a broader participant base, including individuals with varying levels of experience with IVR technologies.

These considerations reinforce the potential of IVR serious games as a transformative complement to physics education, providing a bridge between theoretical learning and experiential engagement. As IVR and serious game methodologies advance, their integration into STEM curricula may contribute to improving cognitive engagement, retention, and conceptual mastery in physics education.

5.1. Limitations of the Study

5.1.1. Study Design and Absence of a Control Group

A key limitation is the lack of a control group receiving traditional classroom instruction. This study was designed as a pilot investigation, primarily aimed at assessing the feasibility and effectiveness of “Parabolic Basketball VR” as a learning tool for projectile motion. The single-group pre- and post-design was chosen due to logistical constraints and the exploratory nature of the research. However, we acknowledge that a comparative study involving a control group exposed to conventional instructional methods (e.g., lectures, videos, or text-based study) would provide a more robust evaluation of the relative benefits of IVR-based learning. Future research should implement a between-group experimental design, where two groups undergo the same pre- and post-tests, with one group learning through IVR and the other through conventional methods.

5.1.2. Short-Term Knowledge Recall and Long-Term Retention

Another important limitation concerns the short-term nature of the assessment. The post-test was conducted immediately after the intervention, meaning that improvements in conceptual understanding may partially reflect short-term recall rather than deep learning consolidation. While the results indicate a significant increase in learning gains, this design does not account for the sustainability of knowledge over time. Future longitudinal studies should assess whether the observed learning improvements persist over extended periods and how IVR-based learning compares to traditional instruction in terms of knowledge retention and transferability to real-world problem-solving contexts. Implementing delayed post-tests at multiple time points would provide a clearer picture of long-term learning stability.

5.1.3. Sample Size and Generalizability

The study’s sample size and composition also present limitations. The study involved a relatively small and homogeneous group of 17 university students from a single institution, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. To strengthen the external validity of IVR-based learning outcomes, future research should include a more diverse population across different educational contexts, age groups, and academic backgrounds. Expanding the participant pool would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the applicability of IVR-based serious games in physics education.

5.1.4. IVR as a Complementary Educational Tool

It is also important to emphasize that IVR-based learning should not be viewed as a replacement for traditional instruction but rather as a complementary tool. While immersive virtual environments provide interactive, experiential learning opportunities, structured lectures and theoretical discussions remain essential for students to fully grasp the underlying principles of physics. IVR enhances engagement and conceptual visualization, but the integration of theoretical instruction with interactive simulations is key to achieving a comprehensive understanding of complex scientific concepts.

5.1.5. Technological Accessibility and Usability Refinements

Another challenge concerns technological accessibility. The reliance on high-performance IVR equipment, such as the Meta Quest 2, may limit broader adoption, particularly in resource-constrained educational settings. Future research should explore scalable and cost-effective IVR solutions to improve accessibility and ensure that immersive learning technologies reach a wider student population. Additionally, while the game underwent initial playtesting with both teachers and students, further iterations with a broader audience could have refined the game mechanics and educational content even further, ensuring a more optimized and effective learning experience. Usability assessments, such as those planned in future studies, will contribute to enhancing interaction design and instructional clarity within “Parabolic Basketball VR”.

5.1.6. Self-Reported Data and Potential Bias

Certain aspects of the study, such as self-reported engagement and perceived learning, may be subject to social desirability bias. Although our findings indicate positive learning outcomes, future studies should incorporate objective, performance-based metrics (e.g., eye-tracking data, behavioral interaction logs, or extended retention tests) to strengthen the validity and reliability of the impact of IVR on student learning and engagement.